Early March, 2006: It Has Been Recently Verified By Particle Physicists That Neutrinos May Be The Building Blocks For All Matter. A Recent NOVA Series Describes In Detail This Finding. If So, The Expansion Of Planetary Bodies May Follow As A Consequence Of Particle Physics Experiments. The Author Wrote A Text Back In 1999 At: http://www.johnkharms.com/cosmic.htm Where This Idea Was Further Explored. See This Text For More Details. See Also This Text Below Authored in 1998. So, Planetary Expansion (As Described Below) May Now Have A Definitive Mechanism. This Surprising New Finding Was Sorely Needed For Expansion Theorists! The Text Below Has Remained Untouched Since It Was Written In 1998. A Related Text To This One Describes The Expansion Of Solar Systems (Now Driven By The Neutrinos From The Stars). See The Text: http://www.johnkharms.com/solarsystem.htm For Further Details. The Author Now Acknowledges Dr. Karl Luckert ( See: http://www.triplehood.com ) And (To A Slightly Lesser Extent) James Maxlow As The Worldwide Experts In "Earth" Expansion. This Author's Contributions To The Subject Largely Lie With This Text (Written In 1998) Which Extended The Work Of The Australian Carey To Include New Exploratory Observations Of The Planets As Well As The Newly Discovered Mechanism Of Neutrinos. See The 1999 "Cosmic" Link Above As Well As This Text Below--The Neutrino Hypothesis Is Explored In Both Works. Dr. Karl Luckert To His Credit Also Mentioned in 1999 That Neutrinos Might Be A Possible Mechanism. But, Luckert Did Not Write A Treatise On The Subject At That Time In 1999 (Or This One In 1998), While This Author Did So. In Any Event, To Follow Is The Original 1998 Planetary Expansion Text. Note That This Text Only Serves As An Outline (The Beginning) Of An Absolutely Huge Field Of Study Of The Planets And Their Amazing Surface Features, Features That Can Be Explained (In The Author's Opinion) By No Other Reasonable Theory Or Sets Of Theories. So, Do Enjoy The Ideas Presented Here! They Are Revolutionary Indeed.
IN THE FIELD OF THE PLANETARY SCIENCES:
DOES AN EXPANSION OF ALL CELESTIAL BODIES EXPLAIN MANY OF THE PUZZLING SURFACE FEATURES PRESENTLY OBSERVED?
BY: John K. Harms
Email: harmsjk3@earthlink.net
Go To HOME
© Copyright, 1998
Abstract: Is exponential enlargement a Universal theme of all celestial bodies? If all planetary bodies in our solar system have roughly doubled or tripled in diameter since accretion roughly 4.5 billion years ago, some sense can be made of present observations of their exteriors. A slowly growing crust with a faster growing core may cause the surface features photographed by NASA and other spacecraft. Reasonable indicators of expansion of a planet from within are established, and compared with actual NASA and other data. The relationship of indicators of expansion to photographic evidence is given on a planet by planet basis. Additionally, a brief history of the proposed mechanisms of expansion by the various researchers is discussed, with the advantages and difficulties given of each approach. The neutrino oscillation mechanism is proposed (and presented here) as well another different mechanism via wormholes within the core of matter. Hence, there are three different mechanisms proposed by the author. Both mechanisms predict an exponential expansion. It is argued that Earthly expansion can be proved indirectly with the use of other planets. This expansion model can be falsified by testing its predictions. If the reader would like to view the "wormhole mechanism", it can be seen at: http://www.johnkharms.com/inflation.htm . The gravity-growth mechanism can be viewed at: http://www.johnkharms.com/gravity-growth.htm The noticeable expansion evidence in the solar system, using any of the three mechanisms, is presented in this text. Thus, the evidence that expansion is taking place is the primary focus of the work presented here.
Key Words: Earth, Moons, Exponential, Expanding Celestial Bodies, NASA Missions, Solar System, O. C. Hilgenberg, Neutrino, Wormholes
Introduction
Few scientists of today have heard of the ideas of O. C. Hilgenberg, the engineer who in 1933 first formulated what is now known as the expanding Earth thesis. No geologist in Hilgenberg's day could accept an Earth or any celestial body that increases in mass as it expands over time. The fact that the continents fit neatly together on a smaller Earth with few gaps was not appreciated by geologists. Hilgenberg tried to prove the expansion of the Earth. Later expansion theorists have positioned the expanding Earth to compete directly with plate tectonics, a theory widely accepted for the past thirty years or so.
The neutrino mechanism for planetary expansion predicts that expansion should be exponential. An exponential expansion has been proposed by many expansion theorists to explain the features and age of the ocean floors. A modern theorist, James Maxlow, has created a mathematical model describing such features. Neutrino oscillations, as described subsequently, may provide a likely mechanism for Maxlow's theory. The neutrino mechanism, the first (of the two) mechanism the author proposed, is the focus here. An interesting graphic of the Earth expanding was created by James Maxlow and it may be viewed at: http://people.enternet.com.au/~jmaxlow/images/global.jpg .
The Earth is not the focus of this text, but the Earth must also be included in any discussion of planetary expansion. This text will endeavor to demonstrate that expansion is a fact on other planets and explains better their surface features. Firstly, expansion indicators are established and subsequently compared on a planet by planet basis with the available surface images from the various missions.
What Does A Planetary Expansion Look Like?
Expansion of a planet is characterized in this model by an almost doubling in diameter since accretion. Expansion theorist James Maxlow's Archaean models indicate the Earth has tripled in size. If a doubling or tripling of the diameter has taken place on all of the planets in the solar system, what planetary surface features indicate that it has taken place? Such indicators must be reasonable and very evident. When expansion pressures build within a planet's core because these bodies are growing from the inside-out, one or more of the following indicators may be present. Seven central surface "indicators" can be readily identified. These indicators are:
1) Recent lava flows of new extruded crustal material (resurfacing), few or no craters in an otherwise heavily cratered planet might indicate this. Lunar maria or the lava fields of Mars are common examples. The Earth's crust is known to be about 80% volcanic rocks, thus, volcanism has transformed and expanded our planet (Hazen, 1999). Since lava must overcome gravity, therefore there must be force from the internal expansion pressures from below the surface. Other more unusual types of volcanism, such as ice or water volcanism, can also expand a planet's surface. The effect of gravitational energy on heating of a planet's interior and the outward expansion forcing the spilling of magma on a planet's surface indicates expansion is present. See the "Gravity-Growth" text at the link below for more information.
2) A previous enlargement might explain cracking in ice or rock resulting in large gorges or canyons on a planet's exterior. Valles Marineris, Ithaca Chasma or the Grand Canyon are well known by planetary scientists.
3) Planetary "stretch markings", which could showcase rock, or ice, breaking apart during expansion. These can resemble large ridges, fractures, tensional faults, grooves or troughs in a planet's surface that may extend for short distances or even the entire length or width of a planet.
4) The existence of uplifting of the surface of a planet. Examples of this are lava-filled or gaseous domes, dykes and mountain building. Some types of folding may be due to expansion.
5) The apparent widening in diameter and flattening of older craters, is what one would expect to observe, if the exterior crust were slowly stretching. This is a very common observation on all rocky planets. The formation of concentric rings as present on the surfaces of Callisto and Mercury can show the effects of a gradual expansion with time.
6) Given enough time, seismic activity from expansion can cause landslides on crater walls which further flatten and widen relatively new craters. These low-profile craters are present on many planets. Uneven surface enlargement means that all rocky worlds must have seismic activity or quakes. This is a testable prediction for future exploration of the planets.
7) The vibration (quivering) of our planet Earth, recently discovered by Naoki Kobayashi of the Tokyo Institute of Technology is expected in an unevenly expanding globe (Monastersky, 1998). It is expected (and predicted) that all planets quiver despite a lack of tectonic activity on many of them.
The expansion of an entire rocky world may not be completely smooth and planets may undergo expansion phases. Relatively dormant periods may be followed by periodic phases of surface enlargement with long intervals in between. Thus, the expansion may be pulsed. When averaged over millions of years the expansion is exponential, but in the short-term it (like the frequency of Earthquakes) may be jerky. Such phases may be mathematically complex and more difficult to forecast than long-term weather patterns. The diversity of the size of atoms, their chemical bonding properties etc., leads to a jerky, complex expansion and the transformation of a planet's exterior from a smooth hot ball to a cooler planet full of ridges, domes, mountains, canyons and cracks. Solid rock resists expansion. A planet's core and lower mantle is expanding faster than the crust causing physical disturbances of the crust above like those previously described. Moreover, all of the indicators may not be prevalent on all the planets, thus a planet may "select" its particular method(s) of expansion. Unique to each planet, a planet releases the pressure's that are building very gradually from within. The expansion theorist David Ford has suggested that how a planet "chooses" which method of expansion to employ is related to the planet's composition [David Ford, personal communication (January 23, 1999)].
In the following missions, the NASA photographic data in many cases is incomplete. More complete maps of these worlds could either prove or disprove the model. This grants the gradual expansion model predictive power to surmise what types of observations will be discovered when new missions are launched. More complete and higher quality charts can confirm the model's predictions or negate them.
One can view the evidence of expansion right on the Web, at a site called: The Nine Planets by: Bill Arnett at http://www.dkrz.de/mirror/tnp/nineplanets.html . Another useful site is Welcome to the Planets, a site run by JPL at http://pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/welcome.htm or the NSSDC Photo Gallery at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery/photogallery.html These Websites all contain comprehensive photographs of the surface features described by this text. The Nine Planets , Welcome to the Planets and NSSDC Photo Gallery all had a very up to date analysis of many of the NASA and other images. There are many links are to the NSSDC Photo Gallery. Much thanks to them for their superb images.
Do Other Planets Display the Expansion Indicators?
Carl Sagan has said that "extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence". To this author, the evidence is absolutely overwhelming that expansion is a Universal theme in our solar neighborhood, thus the Earth must also be included in this description.
To strengthen the case for Earthly expansion, attention should be focused upon the other planets and satellites of our solar system. What has taken place on all celestial bodies is a Universal theme, thus has taken place on the Earth. This text is purposely ignoring the Earth as other theorist have already built a strong case for Earthly expansion. The author's view of Earthly expansion is similar to that of James Maxlow. His Website is recommended at the end of the text.
Other planets have not been scrutinized to the degree that the Earth has, thus, such worlds will be the prime focus of this text. A planet by planet analysis follows, a comparison between the photographic data and the previously described indicators of expansion:
The Moon
The Moon has many lava flows called maria (or seas) on its front face. The maria have few craters, indicating they were formed more recently. The moon is a good candidate for expansion and suits the hypothesis well. As the lunar surface enlarged, new crustal material was extruded in low lying areas resulting in lava flows. The Moon's gravity kept the planet relatively spherical, but left evidence in its wake. In agreement with the model, seismic activity is common on the Moon and verified by seismographs placed there.
All data confirm previous findings that maria are less extensive on the Moon's back side. According to recent analysis, the crust is thicker on the back of the Moon. Since the Moon is tidally locked with the Earth, its rotation period equal to its sidereal period, expansion may have occurred mostly on its exposed half. When internal pressures from expansion were released, the thin crust on the front side became the "path of least resistance" encouraging enlargement with maria-type lava flows. Does tidal locking encourage expansion only on the side facing the planet?
During earlier expansion phases on the Moon, cryptomaria or hidden maria, which are much older than common maria and usually covered over by craters, were extruded from the mantle on the lunar back side. Additionally, older craters have widened and flattened on the back side. This could indicate that the Moon has had several expansion phases, but is now tidally locked with the Earth.
More than one hundred domes have been counted on the lunar surface. Domes are blister-like swellings that contain gas or lava within them. Some domes have formed relatively recently. Some clefts or cracks are present on the lunar exterior that may be entirely new. The floor of the great Alpine Valley may contain a new cleft discovered in 1953. The crater Reaumer has a crack that appears to have lengthened since 1910 (Price, 1988). Are such features stretch markings (an indicator of expansion) that widen with age? The spectacular lunar canyon Hadley Rille, which is more than 100 km long and over one km wide, makes its way along the eastern boundary of the Palus Putredinis. One popular formation theory is that lava tubes eventually collapsed by small meteorite impacts leaving this long canyon (Ferris, 1984). Some of the Rille is flat on the bottom and may be caused by extensional faulting from expansion which was subsequently altered by lava flows.
A pictorial analysis of the near-side lunar exterior encourages a comparison with the Earth. Are the light colored surfaces on the Moon analogous to the Earth's continents and the darker maria expansion zones similar to our oceans? Do the light colored surfaces fit? With some imagination the light areas do crudely fit together with each other, which could indicate that the maria did not just cover-over existing crust when it was extruded. If so the Moon may have been smaller in the distant past, the maria on the exposed half being the primary regions of lunar expansion. An interesting false-color image of the lunar surface can be accessed at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/moon/gal_moon_false1.jpg .
Mercury
The next expansion candidate is Mercury. Mercury has suspect areas, but because of its close proximity to the Sun, it has numerous craters from meteor impacts. Much of the evidence of enlargement is destroyed from a frequent bombardment by asteroids which orbit the Sun. Perhaps also the bombardment by charged particles from the solar wind or the Sun's very strong infrared radiation (electromagnetic heat waves) has covered-up some of the expansion evidence.
Some ridges and escarpments are seen, which it is claimed are from compressional forces. Can expansion actually be the cause of these surface features on Mercury? Plains, possibly lava fields which are sparsely cratered, can also be identified. Some are called: Tir Planitia, Budh Planitia, Odin Planitia and in the north polar regions, Suisei Planitia and Borealis Planitia. These appear similar to lunar maria (lava flows), thus expansionary in nature. Mercury is more dense than the Earth, thus it likely has a proportionally much larger iron core. Theorists have suggested that Mercury was once a much larger planet.
The Caloris basin on Mercury which (like Callisto) shows concentric rings, has heavy craters in one area with light cratering in others indicating a newer crust (see http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/mercury/caloris.jpg ). Ancient lava flows have been identified in this basin, as well as wrinkle looking ridges which may be fractures with lava escaping from them. Mercury appears like it has a history of lava-filled craters, indicating an expansion of the crust. Are there more recent lava flows on Mercury? A curious feature of heavily cratered planets such as Mercury is that older craters increase in diameter and flatten over time. This can be explained by expansion indicators # 5 and #6 above. As will be shown subsequently, this is a common feature on other rocky planets.
Venus
Our sister planet is Venus. Craters are numerous and appear randomly dispersed on Venus. These craters appear in almost pristine condition. There are few small craters on Venus. Relative age-dating is not possible because all regions on Venus appear roughly the same age. This suggests two possibilities: either the entire surface of Venus has relatively new crust or there has never been any resurfacing of the planet at all. If a very gradual expansion were taking place, perhaps beginning in the large rift systems, it should have very little effect upon the apparent randomness of the crater impacts.
Venus has the huge Maxwell Montes and Aphrodite Terra both of volcanic origin. There are numerous volcanic features on Venus (see Venus surface map: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/venus/venusglobe.jpg ). It is thought that Venus's sulfuric acid atmosphere is due to such volcanic activity. It may be likely that these volcanoes are presently active. Crater floors appear dark due to flooding with lava from below the surface. Ovda Regio displays an uneven expansion feature, compression. The Lavinia region has ridge belts from compression and lava flows have filled-in between the ridges. Both these areas have had a long history of expansion forces. Alpha Regio is a region of troughs, ridges and faults in all directions. Ovda Regio is a basin that is filled with lava flows. Many gaseous or lava-filled domes appear on the surface of Venus. Domical Hills is a series of seven domes which average twenty five km in diameter. The crust was forced to stretch as high as 750 meters by lava welling-up from below the surface.
Other regions on the planet consist of low lying terrain which could be lava flows. Beta Regio and Phobe Regio are sunken troughs possibly similar to the African Rift Valley on Earth. Guinevere Planitia and other planitia could be the primary areas of expansion on Venus. If there are cracks due to expansion which were then intruded with molten material from below, it could explain how resurfacing of the entire planet might have transpired. It is difficult to see how no resurfacing took place with the presence of so many volcanic features on the surface of Venus.
Another expansion indicator, concentric rings are evident in the Fortuna region which are called Arachnoids. Another area called Selu Corona is a circular area of stress-cracks and radial fractures. The area called Corona is similar and is absolutely gigantic. There is what planetary scientists call "graph paper" terrain on Venus, which appears to be planetary stretch markings (indicator # 3). These basically are very straight ridges with about one km between them and they extend for quite long distances. The crust must have undergone a very gradual long-term tension. The straight linearity and continuity of the lines attests to an evenly maintained expansion. Graph paper terrain is difficult to explain using present tectonic models, because there are no accompanying complementary crustal stress fields nearby on Venus [David Ford, personal communication (January 25, 1999)].
The Magellan spacecraft has mapped Venus in amazing detail and the indicators of expansion are virtually everywhere, particularly the tensional-related rift systems which are very likely the zones of expansion. Much to the dismay of Earthly geologists, there are no identifiable subduction zones on Venus. This fact rules out any "Earth-like" plate tectonic processes. Therefore, expansion appears a far superior model to describe and predict the historical geological events on Venus. Since there is evidence of present volcanism on Venus, it is likely that the planet is presently in an expansion phase.
Mars
Mars is the red planet. Mars has obvious new crust formation on its exterior. Four large volcanic mountains, Olympus Mons, Arsia Mons, Pavonis Mons and Ascraeus Mons are strong indicators of new crustal material in the past. Mars has open plains of meagerly-cratered lava fields. Another exterior enlargement feature is the notable Valles Marineris, a huge canyon more than 4,000 km long and four times deeper than the Grand Canyon on Earth. These polygonal fractures are five to twenty five km wide, they are similar to the fractures on Mercury. Is Valles Marineris, the largest single feature on Mars, a tensional rift due to stretching and cracking of the crust? There is no liquid matter on Mars to "carve out" a canyon on its surface. By what process did it form if there is no liquid water present? Did faults and/or joints on both planets widen from internal expansion of the crust, showing that the Grand Canyon on Earth has a similar origin to Valles Marineris?
Could the Colorado River on Earth gouge over one km deep through solid rock in the allotted time to form the Grand Canyon? If one accepts an expansion of both Mars and Earth as being possible, such features as the Grand Canyon and Valles Marineris seem not only possible, but inevitable.
Mars Global Surveyor's high resolution photos show bright cracks filled in with underground lava in a region known as the Elysium Basin. A very different explanation of a vanished ocean was proposed two decades ago after the Viking mission to explain these observations (Cowen, 1998). Tharsis is a huge bulge about 4000 km across and ten km high. Is Tharsis a gaseous or lava-filled dome thus an indicator of an expansion of the crust?
A final observation of the red planet, its north polar terrain map displays few craters, while its south polar map shows many. A digital image map of Mars is available at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/mars/mars_dim.jpg . Could the north polar map be an area of new crust and therefore, younger than the south polar region? Mars strongly suits the expansion model by having many indicators of expansion and it raises many new questions for our own planet.
Mars has two relatively small moons, Phobos and Deimos. Both moons display stretch markings and the apparent widening of older craters. It is surprising that these indicators of expansion are noticeable on such small bodies. New photos taken by Mars Global Surveyor show grooves and fractures possibly due to a large crater on Phobos. Phobos may be producing gas which is very likely water vapor. This is according to a Russian probe. A close up image of Phobos is available at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/mars/f854a81-3.jpg . By what internal process is the gas being produced?
Jupiter
Jupiter, the next planet out from the Sun, is a gaseous planet. Surface evidence for expansion is not available for all of the Jovian planets. An enlargement may have occurred of these worlds, perhaps in their metallic cores, but the expansion is not evident. However, Jupiter's satellites which number more than sixteen can be examined. The best data is of its four major moons.
It appears that the satellite Io is presently in a rapid expansion phase, with a thinning crust and much volcanism apparent on its exterior (see Io image at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/jupiter/io_close.jpg ). Many of the expansion indicators are evident. Current theories hold that a planet's size determines the strength of the internal heat source, mainly radioactive decay processes and gravitational energy released during accretion. These processes presumably drive volcanic activity and tectonics. Io appears not to fit with present models since its size is comparable to our own Moon (about 3632 km in diameter). If radioactive elements are responsible for the volcanism on Io, it would require one hundred times more Thorium and Uranium than is reasonable on the satellite. The present exception made for Io is that land tides are responsible for its volcanism is very ad hoc. The so-called resonant orbits of Io with its neighboring moons is also claimed to help explain Io's volcanism. Expansion appears a much simpler explanation.
Few impact craters and large lava flows are observed on Io. In fact, the whole surface of the moon appears to be new crust. With the Galileo spacecraft's recent photos, it is possible to compare with those of seventeen years earlier taken by the Voyager missions. Many changes have taken place such as a dozen areas that have been resurfaced with new crust. Reddish areas are apparent caused by high-temperature explosive volcanism. Active expansion is now occurring on Io. Io has "chosen" volcanism as its present expansion method.
Tidal forces from Jupiter are thought to be the explanation why Io is so volcanic, however neighboring Europa has no known volcanoes on its surface. In fact, Europa has the flattest surface of any moon yet known in the solar system. Tidal forces could be a major factor in Io's present evolution, but cannot explain all its volcanoes. This is because Europa's absolute lack of any volcanic activity suggests that tidal influences can only partially explain Io's volcanism.
Europa has the cracked appearance of water ice. Again, tidal forces are the current rationale for Europa's cracks. The highest spaces between the cracks are from several to seventy km wide. High-resolution images by Galileo reveal a surface full of small ridges and places where warm ice has welled up from below. This observation suggests expansion cracking (tensional faulting), followed by the injection of liquid from below which in-turn freezes. Indeed, there may be an ocean of liquid water below the ice exterior on Europa. This injection of water is similar to the injection of magma at the mid-oceanic ridge beneath the Atlantic Ocean on Earth. Europa's crust was separated and filled-in with darker material. All of Europa's original craters have been resurfaced. By comparing Voyager data with that of the Galileo mission, a place called Ra Patera has shown major differences suggesting that Europa is presently active and may be quite young. Galileo has also revealed a fault about 810 km in length called Astypalaea Linea. The fault is strike-slip in nature and similar to the San Andreas fault on Earth. Astypalaea Linea may be evidence of an earlier expansion phase, since it appears presently to be dormant. Galileo has also revealed concentric rings at several locations. See a close up image of Europa at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/jupiter/europa_close.jpg .
Ganymede, Jupiter's largest moon, also has a huge dark plain of material. Ganymede has both dark terrain and lighter material which appear to be of different ages. The younger lighter material is likely the expansion region. Typical of regions with newer crust, these lighter areas have fewer craters. Galileo has revealed craters on Ganymede cut by many fractures indicating the crust may have been deformed by expansion early. Moreover, there are many flat low-profile craters on Ganymede. The vastly superior Galileo images suggest that ice flows may not be a factor in producing Ganymede's many ridges which presently have an origin which is not clear. Close-up photos by Galileo show the many grooves and ridges in Ganymede. Several episodes of faulting of the dark terrain may be due to expansion from deeper within the moon, causing the crust to fracture. Like Miranda, there appears to be a fault block structure on Ganymede. Complex deformation patterns have formed on Ganymede's icy crust which might be expansion related. Image of Ganymede at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/jupiter/ganymede.jpg .
With expansion from within a planet, ridges and faults on the exterior are not only easy to explain, they are expected on all planets. Where such features are not present, the planet has "chosen" alternative methods (see indicators of expansion above) of releasing internal pressures. Ganymede appears exactly like a planet that has expanded from within and dark material from below subsequently filled in the cracks. It is very easy to make a case for expansion on Ganymede. Indeed, it seems the only reasonable explanation for its surface features.
Ancient Callisto is the last of Jupiter's large satellites. Callisto is perhaps the most heavily cratered object in the solar system. Two suspect regions on Callisto are the huge valleys of Valhalla and Asgard, which appear to be surrounded by planetary stretch markings (indicator # 3 above). Both valleys may now be filled with ice. Both were once huge deep meteor craters which are now surrounded by concentric rings. These are known as multi-ring basins, the result of a massive impact. Surface expansion and much time have transformed both into relatively shallow (but wider) valleys. The remnants of the initial impacts (as layers of the crust) have survived as the markings that surround both depressions. Callisto's thick crust is spread open layer by layer. This typical meteoric crater does not appear like a typical crater, because it is very old and extremely large. A planetary expansion has had time to transform the exterior of Callisto. The large crevasse Gipul Catena is also observed on Callisto which is equally difficult to explain without the expansion model. Some resurfacing has taken place on Callisto as some craters have been covered-over.
Galileo has revealed landslide deposits within two large impact craters that may be due to seismic disturbances (quakes) on Callisto. The crater Har on Callisto displays an unusual rounded mound on its floor. An expansionary uplift due to a thin crust and a lava-filled or gaseous dome can explain this observation of the center of Har. Concentric rings on Callisto evident in this close up image: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/jupiter/callisto_close.jpg .
Saturn
Saturn has a gaseous composition, thus it cannot strengthen the model. Saturn has perhaps more than eighteen moons. Outward from Saturn, we find the first major moon, Mimas. Mimas has a stretched area on its south polar map and "canyon like" chasms running mostly northwest to southeast across its midsection. The huge crater Hershel is very stretched-out in appearance, although in places is ten km deep. Hershel has a six km central peak. Mimas must have suffered a very violent impact to cause such a crater. It is likely that Mimas has not been recently resurfaced by extruded material from below. Mimas image at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/saturn/mimas.jpg . The moon Epimetheus has large and small grooves, valleys and many ridges on its surface and is probably quite old.
Enceladus exhibits extensive systems of stretched regions and new crustal material of unknown origination. Ice or water volcanism may be at work on Enceladus. Older craters have been resurfaced. Multiple stages of volcanism have formed and reformed the surface of Enceladus. Expansion appears obvious on Enceladus, as it is likely that there has been a recent internal melting. There are fractures on Enceladus that may be quite young, which may indicate a recent expansion phase. See Enceladus image at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/saturn/enceladus.jpg .
Tethys' mercator projection displays a huge canyon called Ithaca Chasma, which is about four km at its deepest point and averages sixty-five km wide. The crevasse stretches north and south for three quarters of the circumference of Tethys. Is this a huge expansion crack, or is it explained more conventionally by the tidal forces from Saturn, or both? If only tidal forces cause such cracks, why don't all Saturnian satellites have these huge crevasses? This chasm appears very similar to the Grand Canyon on Earth and Valles Marineris on Mars. The impressive crater Odysseus is 400 km in diameter. Although large, it is very flat. Actually, the present explanation for Ithaca Chasma is that Tethys expanded because it was once liquid. Why isn't this trend of expansion noticed and extended, as suggested by this text, to all planets? View a color image of Tethys at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/saturn/tethys.jpg .
Dione, with lightly cratered "wispy" features, is next. Such wispy markings can indicate relatively new crust in these areas. Does Dione have ice volcanism, an indicator of expansion? Moreover, Dione has flat and stretched (low relief) craters. Deep scars in Dione's north and south polar regions run for 300 km which may have been active recently. Dione has sinuous valleys which is the result of faulting that cracked the ice. Fractures of up to 600 km long radiate from the centers of Turnus, Cassandra and Amata which may indicate uplift of the surface (lava-filled domes perhaps?). See image of Dione at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/saturn/dione.jpg .
Rhea could be the misfit to the expansion model. More data on Rhea could complete the description, but what we know now is that Rhea is heavily cratered. It is difficult to observe expansion indicators with so many craters on Rhea's surface. Older craters do appear flat and stretched lacking the high relief features of other planets, particularly the large crater Izanagi. Another possible indicator is Kuplum Chasma which is 400 km long running northeast. In addition, Rhea may have had some resurfacing. About 50% of Rhea has been charted by the Voyager missions and another flyby could give us a more complete picture. More expansion indicators should be found on the next flyby of Rhea. View Rhea in color at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/saturn/rhea.jpg .
Titan is Saturn's largest satellite and has a thick hydrocarbon atmosphere. Titan has not been charted due to its heavy layer of clouds. There should be numerous expansion indicators (a few features have been discovered) in accordance with the model, when Titan is mapped in the future with radar by the Cassini mission. See Titan image at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/saturn/titan.jpg .
The irregularly shaped Hyperion has a scarp system 300 km long of a very suspicious origin. Hyperion also has a thin layer of dark material which might possibly be extruded from beneath the surface. Iapetus has the huge Cassini region, in which an entire hemisphere of the moon in uniformly jet black. This feature is entirely a mystery. The black color is present frequently at the bottom of craters which may indicate an internal origin. If attributed to tidal forces, Iapetus is 3,560,000 km from Saturn thus tidal forces should be less than Saturn's other moons. Is Iapetus currently in an expansion phase, characterized by new extruded crustal material on its exterior? The remainder of Iapetus is normally cratered. A small image of Iapetus can be found at: http://spaceart.com/solar/cap/sat/iapetus2.htm or a larger image at: http://www.dkrz.de/mirror/tnp/iapetus.html . The moon's Janus and Prometheus both have rough grainy surfaces. The other remaining moons of Saturn are either too small for analysis or the data is too limited to be useful.
Uranus
Uranus is another Jovian gaseous world, but its five major moons are of interest. Uranus may have more than seventeen moons. All of these major photographed moons are tidally synchronously locked. All Uranian satellite data is of south polar regions, the only sunlit regions during the flyby. Miranda's surface is unsightly, with valleys, scratches, plateaux, craters, cliffs, fractures of quadrate blocks and many stretch markings. Early observers thought "race tracks". Many extensional faults are observed with walls considerably higher than the Grand Canyon on Earth. The expansion model appears a natural explanation to the features on Miranda. Miranda has so many features and is a relatively small world (less than 500 km in diameter). There may be other factors in Miranda's evolution, such as differentiation, which could have caused so many markings. The latest explanation involves the up welling of partially melted ices. This new reasoning appears to the author to be very weak when one considers the tremendous quantity of amazing surface features on Miranda. A small image of Miranda can be accessed at: http://spaceart.com/solar/cap/uranus/miranda4.htm or a closer image at: http://www.dkrz.de/mirror/tnp/miranda.html .
Moreover, Ariel has many stretch markings, tensional faults, ridges, canyons and mesas on its surface. Ariel has valleys (cracks) more than ten km deep. However, Ariel is not as badly scarred as Miranda. Similar to Miranda, the surface of Ariel is segmented by fault blocks. Ariel has a younger volcanic exterior with few craters. There may be resurfacing processes at work from below on Ariel. Expansion may have begun on the tidally locked side of Ariel similar to our Moon. The locked side facing Uranus has fewer craters indicating a newer crust. Ariel's intensely cratered areas are transected by fault scarps and graben. These areas are younger deposits (zones of expansion) extruded from below the surface. The striking thing about moons like Ariel and Miranda is that geologic evolution began at all, because both moons are so small. Ariel is about one-third and Miranda less than one-sixth the size of our own Moon. A small image of Ariel can be seen at: http://spaceart.com/solar/cap/uranus/ariel.htm or a closer image at: http://pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/jpeg/ura/intense.jpg .
Umbriel is rather uninteresting. Bright material may have come from below the surface to form a ring eighty km in diameter near the equator. This feature covers an impact crater. Ancient widening and flattening of craters is obvious on Umbriel. Additionally, Umbriel has a mysterious dark color. There are obvious rift valleys up to sixty km wide and tensional faults on Umbriel. When higher quality images are obtained of Umbriel, more expansion related indicators should be found. View Umbriel in color at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/uranus/umbriel.jpg . There are complex rift valleys on Titania. Unexplained resurfacing of the planet appears to have taken place which may be difficult to explain in conventional models. The resurfacing of extruded material lasted for a considerable time. Titania has a relatively young surface. Stretching of the crust is evident, but the current rationale is ice under low pressure. The crust ruptured along a network of extensional faults. Recently Titania is silent. Less than half of Titania has been mapped by Voyager II. A conventional theory of Titania surprisingly involves a past liquid planet and the expansion from within. After hardening, the crust cracked because the interior expanded from its once liquid state. Because its such a common theme, it is surprising that the other planets are not included in this expansion description. View Titania at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/uranus/titania.jpg or a clearer picture of the surface of Titania at: http://www.dkrz.de/mirror/tnp/titania.html .
Oberon, the last Uranian moon examined, has many similar markings to both Umbriel and Ariel. Oberon may have had ancient volcanic activity. Dark patches of material may be a mixture of ice and carbonate rock extruded from the interior. Oberon has some crater floors which are dark in color which might indicate an up welling of material from below the crust. Large tensional faults and rift valleys (which vary in age) extend across the entire southern hemisphere of Oberon which are possibly from an earlier expansion phase. There is evidence that the expansion is an ongoing process due to the differing ages of the rift valleys. An uplifted mountain rises six km above the surrounding regions on Oberon. A small image of Oberon can be viewed at: http://spaceart.com/solar/cap/uranus/oberon.htm or a larger image at: http://pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/jpeg/ura/oberon.jpg . All Uranian moons, except possibly Umbriel, fit the expansion model well.
Neptune
Neptune is another gaseous Jovian and, therefore, of little interest where expansion is concerned. Neptune has eight known satellites. Three of the major moons are Triton, Nereid and Proteus. Limited data on Nereid is available, but Triton data is prevalent. Triton is tidally locked to Neptune and has a very unusual retrograde orbit. Triton is a pink ball hinting at a spectacular geologic history. Sharp photos revealed crenulated landscapes, vast canyons, shallow craters and peaks. Some observers suggested "cantaloupe", others "cellulite". Such cantaloupe terrain might be ringed mounds some thirty km in diameter similar to the fields of salt domes on Earth. Thus, they appear expansionary in nature. Triton is somewhat smaller than our Moon and is the coldest object yet known in the solar system. The area just to the north of the polar cap has been faulted and deformed many times. This region displays fewer craters than other areas of the planet. Perhaps recent geyser-like eruptions of gas, dust and ice are venting at the South Pole of Triton. Fissures and cracks slash the surface like superhighways. These features are difficult to explain in conventional models, but are described naturally by expansion. There are signs of past volcanism on Triton, possibly in an earlier volcanic phase. Triton may have ice volcanoes erupting possibly liquid nitrogen, dust or methane compounds. It is surprising that there is an internal heat source on such a cold planet in the outer reaches of the solar system. Only an expansion of the planet explains how this is possible. View a close up color image of Triton at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/neptune/triton_close.jpg .
The small irregular moon Proteus has a scratched and ridge-like surface, although data is limited on this moon. View a small image of Proteus at: http://spaceart.com/solar/cap/nep/proteus.htm .
Pluto, which has not been visited by a probe, may be similar in composition to Triton. Moreover, Pluto should have similar indicators of expansion when finally explored. The ESA's faint object camera has taken these images of Pluto, they can be viewed at: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planetary/pluto/hst_pluto1.jpg .
No currently proposed model adequately demonstrates what "drives" change on all celestial bodies. A new proposed mechanism is the idea that Iodine 129 or Aluminum 26 provides heating in the primitive solar nebula. A second mechanism is gravitational energy released by incoming debris as the satellite accreted. A third mechanism is that tidal forces cause heating in some planets in close proximity to larger bodies. Present models are a patchwork, with no common thread. So if an expansion is really taking place, what is the mechanism responsible?
The History of Expansion Mechanisms
While the example of most all gravitation theories demonstrate that it is not necessary know the physical cause of a phenomena to be able to prove it is a fact, it is nevertheless tempting to speculate about expansion mechanisms. As will be shown, there are a large number of mechanisms to from which to choose.
An unknown Dutch author published The Moon Problem: Solved in 1928. This may be the first expansion proposal on record. The unknown author proposed no expansion mechanism (Berends, 1996).
A few years later in 1933, Ott C. Hilgenberg published Vom Wachsenden Erdball (On The Growing Earth-ball) which was better re searched and more closely resembled later expansion theories. Hilgenberg was an engineer from Berlin, Germany. For his mechanism, Hilgenberg looked back to the nineteenth century in the days before Einstein. Hilgenberg believed in the aether concept. Therefore, his mechanism was the aether-sink. Hilgenberg proposed that the Earth was a huge aether-sink and that the aether becomes matter at the Earth's core (Hilgenberg, 1933). No geologist in 1933 could accept this idea, so the geological community largely ignored his papers.
In 1935, J. K. E.. Halm, a South African astronomer, proposed the idea that the Earth is expanding because it began as a densely packed atomic mass. Halm believed that white dwarfs, which have densities ranging up to 100,000 times that of the Earth, can be explained only as compressed aggregates of atomic nuclei. This mechanism has largely been lost, but is rather similar to Hugh Owen's subsequent mechanism of a plasma core.
The famous physicist P. A. M. Dirac proposed a different mechanism after 1938. He contended that Newton's gravitational constant is no constant at all. Dirac claimed that the constant diminishes in the course of millions of years. As a result, the diameters of all celestial bodies increase in length, the masses of the stars remain unchanged. This corresponds to expansion of the celestial bodies and to their diminishing densities (Dirac, 1938).
In 1984, Hugh Owen proposed that the Earth's core is plasma. In Owen's concept, the nickel-iron core is a myth. If the core were plasma, there would be a potential for expansion when the core changes from a plasma to an atomic state. The interface of the liquid outer core and the lower mantle is the expansion zone. This idea has fewer difficulties than many of the earlier mechanisms (Berends, 1996, Owen, 1984).
Other mechanisms have been proposed from the expanding Universe to neutrino interactions. The expanding Universe has the fundamental flaw that all planets expand Universally, thus there can be no observable surface features from this type of enlargement. Additionally, how does one measure an expansion of this type since rulers expand also, and at the same rate. It also appears that gravity should easily overcome this method of Universal expansion. If atoms were to expand in an uneven fashion i.e. hydrogen differs in its rate of expansion than say carbon, then the Universe expanding could be a plausible mechanism. Hence, the interior of a planet may expand more than the crust.
Since 1986, many papers have been published on the possible capture of dark matter by the cores of the planets. Freeze, 1986; Krauss et al., 1986; Gould, 1987, 1988, 1991, 1992a, 1992b; Giudice and Roulet, 1989 and Kawasaki et al., 1992 have all proposed mechanisms for the capture of dark matter (like WIMPS: Weakly Interacting Massive Particles) and possible change into baryonic matter in the core (Ciechanowicz et al., 1994). Besides mini black holes ,which may not exist locally, a likely particle candidate is the neutrino.
Neutrino Mechanism Presented By This Text
The ongoing Super-Kamiokande experiment has revealed that the neutrino does have a mass. A flavor called muon neutrinos which come from cosmic-rays, has been found to oscillate which proves (according to quantum mechanics) that neutrinos have a tiny mass. Muon neutrinos oscillate from one neutrino state to another neutrino state and back again as they travel through the Earth.
Because of the well-known nature of neutrino production by cosmic-rays, it was known that there should be another flavor called an electron neutrino. The ratio based upon experiments turned out to be closer to one to one. Thus half of the muon neutrinos were missing. About 100 of the cosmic-ray induced neutrinos from the atmosphere pass through your body each second. It was found that more muon neutrinos were coming from "overhead" than come "up" through the Earth. Thus the oscillations are far greater if the neutrinos have to travel through the Earth's core.
Oscillations in matter have been used to explain the solar neutrino deficiency. Wolfenstein realized in 1978 that matter can produce a "resonance" effect in the neutrino oscillations called the MSW effect. The MSW effect is the idea that denser matter, which is the key to the expansion of planets from the inside, causes more oscillations than does ordinary matter. There is not direct evidence of this as of yet [Barry Blumenfeld, personal communication (February 16, 1999)].
Electron neutrino's interact differently than other types of neutrinos in the presence of matter. This difference in the interaction rate, enhances the disappearance of electron neutrinos as they travel through dense mediums. These changes in state (oscillations) are actually releases of energy into a planet's interior. This energy is then transformed into matter particles (such as quarks or electrons) which drives expansion.
Los Alamos researchers at New Mexico (USA) have used an accelerator to fire neutrinos into a tank of mineral oil, finding that muon neutrinos changed into electron neutrinos en route. The mass-difference estimate was about one electron volt (eV) (Weiss, 1999). This figure corresponds to a mass equivalent of about 10^-33 grams per neutrino oscillation. If this finding holds up, it may demonstrate that limited neutrino oscillations are possible in less-dense materials. In the Earth's core, the frequency of such oscillations should be vastly increased although this has not yet been proven.
It has been said of neutrinos that they have no purpose. What are neutrinos good for? One answer, besides possibly dark matter, is that these energy changes (which might be strings of oscillations) create new matter particles within a planet. Since neutrinos are abundant, about 1000 million neutrinos and anti-neutrinos for every one nuclear particle, several hundred thousand could add up to a single nuclear particle or quark.
Neutrinos are produced by many different processes. The Super-Kamiokande experiment was concerned exclusively with neutrinos produced by cosmic-rays hitting the atmosphere. Other sources of neutrinos include: the Sun which is a major contributor, supernova explosions and the decay of other particles. Neutrinos are produced in both fission and fusion reactions. The neutrino luminosity of a gravitational collapse-driven supernova can be typically 100 or more times its optical luminosity. Neutrinos make good candidates as the cause of expansion due to their extremely large numbers, and in planetary expansion scenarios, the long time intervals that they have to do their work.
It is possible to combine the neutrino mechanism with Hugh Owen's plasma core model in the following way: Neutrinos from space may interact with the core and very large numbers of them become quarks which are the building blocks of protons and neutrons. At high energies within the core, quarks can become free particles similar to a liquid quark soup. As the neutrinos move away from the core toward lower pressures and temperatures, the quarks join-up to form the protons and neutrons of the plasma in the liquid outer core. At the interface of the liquid outer core and the lower mantle, the plasma is transformed into the atoms and molecules of the more solid materials of the mantle. The potential for expansion exists at both this interface and at the core where the quarks were created. The plasma in the outer core is always being regenerated by the constant neutrino flux from outer space.
Nuclear reactions within stars, thus, aid in the production of new matter within celestial bodies. Matter is transferred from stars to orbiting planets and mass/energy is always conserved in the Universe.
Neutrino Oscillations Lead To An Exponential Expansion
Let us assume for a minute that neutrinos can oscillate in ordinary matter, which is exactly what the Los Alamos researchers found. This means that one neutrino gives up the mass/energy equivalent of one electron volt (10^-33 grams) inside all ordinary matter. A proton has roughly the rest-mass equivalent energy of 938.272 x 10^6 electron volts (eV). Therefore roughly this same number of neutrino oscillations (938,272,000) would be required for the formation of one proton. While this seems improbable at first glance, one should bear in mind the shear numbers of neutrinos (1000 million neutrinos and anti-neutrinos for every one nuclear particle in the Universe) and the absolutely huge quantity passing through the Earth or any other planet at any given moment. The Super Kamiokande experiments has found that approximately fifty-four million neutrinos, of all flavors and origins, pass through the human body each second [David Ford, personal communication (April 7, 1999)].
The production of an electron by this method would require 510,990 simultaneously oscillating neutrinos, as a rest-mass electron has energy of .51099 x 10^6 eV. Either of these two scenarios i.e. electron or proton production from neutrino oscillations, do not appear farfetched in the author's opinion. The formation of quarks is also a possibility at the high energies near a planet's core, however, the masses of quarks are much more uncertain (and only rough estimates of confinement energy) because quarks cannot be isolated at low energies [Jeff W. Robertson, personal communication (February 24, 1999)].
The neutrino oscillation mechanism predicts an exponential expansion of all planets. This is because as a planet expands and its radius increases, the area available for neutrino oscillations i.e. matter production, also increases. Double the radius of any planet and the area available for matter production quadruples. Therefore an inevitable exponential mass growth follows from the neutrino mechanism [ David Ford, personal communication (February 15, 1999)]. Thus, the larger a planet gets, the more it continues to expand. If oscillations are further increased by the denser matter inside planets, it means that expansion would be driven more by the core. As stated above the plasma mechanism could be fed by neutrinos, both mechanisms working in conjunction with each other.
As more is learned about the neutrino by the various laboratories around the world, neutrino physics will become more complete and will answer some of these burning questions. As discussed by this other text, neutrino oscillations create new protons, neutrons and electrons. In addition, fusion at the a planet's core is proposed via "slow neutrons" and beta decay to generate new matter with masses greater than hydrogen.
A breakthrough of sorts for the neutrino mechanism was reported on 19 June, 2001--this paragraph is an update to this text of this important finding. The type of neutrino known as an electron neutrino has been found to constitute 35 percent of all the expected to reach Earth. The neutrino deficit coming from the Sun has been solved because a huge percentage of the muon and tau neutrinos have gone undetected. It has been discovered that neutrons in the nucleus, when hit with an electron neutrino, change the neutron into a proton and the nucleus emits an electron. So, atoms may gain mass and energy by adding protons to the nucleus (similar to beta decay processes) through interations with neutrinos from space (Klein, 2001). Hence, the interior of the planets may be adding protons and electrons to their nuclei and, therefore, increasing their mass. This idea is discussed further in the "Cosmic Chemistry" text at the link below.
Another paper available on this Website (Cosmic Chemistry) discusses these ideas (the slow neutron method of nucleosynthesis, in particular) along with the possible origin of ocean water on the Earth. Moreover, the second mechanism of wormholes at the cores of the planets describes how an inflationary expansion and the false-vacuum state created new matter via these wormholes. The idea is that as the Universe inflates, new matter is deposited at the core of a massive body, essentially funnelled from the Higgs fields to the core. See the "Inflation" link below for further details about this mechanism.
A third mechanism is expansion via quantum gravitational energy. Utilizing gravitational energy to drive expansion, it can be understood that not only may planets expand from within, but they should also heat-up as photons are absorbed. Perhaps, this heating is what drives the volcanism so commonly observed on planetary bodies. See "The Gravity-Growth Mechanism" link below for further details.
Conclusion
This planetary expansion model makes the following predictions about future NASA and other missions:
1) Saturn's moon Rhea and the Uranian moon Umbriel will both demonstrate more expansion indicators on the next flyby. Once their vast uncharted regions are mapped the indicators will emerge. It is anticipated that Titan will have similar features when mapped with radar.
2) When an exploratory mission is rocketed, Pluto and Charon will show expansion markings. A mission has been proposed by NASA in the future.
3) A general prediction is that all planets have seismic activity from uneven surface expansion.
4) Quivering and vibrating is expected on all rocky planets. Seismologists discovered this phenomena recently on the Earth. It is somewhat similar to a planet ringing like a bell.
While these predictions are intriguing, it may be difficult to determine exactly when this model is falsified. Therefore, like the SETI (Search For Extraterrestrial Intelligence) project (and in some regards even plate tectonics), it may be difficult to determine at what point the model should be discarded. On the other hand, present models of planetary surface features, unlike this model, are a patchwork and have absolutely no common thread or theme of the history of our solar system (and even our Universe). Much more planetary data can strengthen the planetary expansion model, which will surely be accumulated in the coming century.
Most of these observations were made by the author and taken from both Andouze & Isreal, (1988) and Krisciunas & Yenne, (1989). Several Websites were also used containing some of the data from the more recent missions. Many of the comments contained in both atlases were also useful.
Links To Related Works:
Cosmic Chemistry: http://www.johnkharms.com/cosmic.htm
A Different Expansion Mechanism Based Upon The Universe's Increasing Expansion (Inflation): http://www.johnkharms.com/inflation.htm
The Gravity-Growth Mechanism: http://www.johnkharms.com/gravity-growth.htm
The Universe's and Solar System's Evolution: http://www.johnkharms.com/solarsystem.htm
Go To HOME
If More Information About Expansion Of The Earth Is Requested, The Author Recommends:
http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Launchpad/8098/HomePage.htm by David Ford
http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Launchpad/6520/ by James Maxlow
Acknowledgments
I wish to thank James Maxlow and David Ford for their helpful analysis of the expansion aspect of the text. The neutrino section was improved by suggestions by Jeff W. Robertson and Barry Blumenfeld.
References
Andouze, J., Isreal, G, 1988 : Editors, The Cambridge Atlas Of Astronomy, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, France, P. 64-213
Berends, B., 1996, The Expanded Earth, Benchmark Publishing and Design, Windsor, Canada, P. 70-74
Carey, S. W., Earth Universe Cosmos, (chapter 8) on the Website of David Ford: http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Launchpad/8098/HomePage.htm
Ciechanowicz, B., Koziar, J., 1994, Frontiers of Fundamental Physics, Plenum Press, New York, P. 321-326
Cowen, R., July 11, 1992, Science News, A Look on the Far Side, Vol. 142, P. 24
Cowen, R., November 7, 1998, Science News, Lava May Have Sculpted Martian Plains, Vol. 154, P. 295
Dirac, P. A. M., 1938, A New Basis for Cosmology--Proceedings of the Royal Society, Lond. Ser. A 165, 199...208, London
Ferris, T., 1998, Coming of Age in the Milky Way, William Morrow and Co., New York, P. 344
Ferris, T., 1984, SpaceShots, Pantheon Books, New York, P. 124
Hazen, R., 1999, Video: The Great Principles of Science, Part IV, Lecture 37: The Dynamic Earth, The Teaching Co., Springfield, VA
Hilgenberg, O. C., 1969, Earth Expansion, Deep-Sea Trenches, and the Inclination of the Shelf-Sea Floors, N.Jb. Geol. Palaont. Mh., Stuttgart, Marz, H.3, P. 138-145
Hilgenberg, O. C., 1933, Vom Wachsenden Erdball, 56 pages, Berlin 19: Published by the Author
Johnson, Brown, Soderblom, April 1987, Scientific American: The Moons of Uranus, Vol. 256, No. 4, New York, P. 48-60
Kinoshita, J., November 1989, Scientific American: Neptune, New York, Vol. 261, No. 5, P. 82-91
Klein, J., June 19, 2001, The San Francisco Chronicle, Newspaper Article, San Francisco, CA, P. A1- A10
Krisciunas, K., Yenne, B., 1989, The Pictorial Atlas of the Universe, Mallard Press, Brompton Books Co., Spain, P. 32-123
Marvin, U. B., 1973, Continental Drift: The Evolution of a Concept, Smithsonian Institution Press, Wash. D. C., P. 152-154
Monastersky, R., July 4,1998, Science News: Ringing Earth's Bell, Vol. 154, P. 12-13
Owen, H., November 22, 1984, New Scientist: The Earth is Expanding and We Don't Know Why, No. 1431, Holborn Publishing Group, London, P. 27
Price, F. W., 1998, The Moon Observers Handbook, Cambridge University Press, Great Britain, P. 208-243
Prinn, R. G., March, 1985, Scientific American: The Volcanoes and Clouds of Venus, New York, Vol. 252, No. 3, P. 46-53
Weaver, J. H., 1987, The World of Physics, Vol. III, Simon and Schuster, New York, P. 286
Weiss, P., January 30, 1999, Science News, A Little Mass Goes a Long Way, Vol. 155, P. 76-78
Additional information was acquired from the following internet Websites:
http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
http://www.washington.edu/newsroom/news/1997archive/04-97archive/k041897.html
http://www.physics.usyd.edu.au/hienergy/oscillations.html
http://www.cithep.caltech.edu/~kate/gc.html
Reader's Note: Proper References And/Or Acknowledgments To This Text Are Appreciated.
© Copyright, 1998
X- Copyright: J. K. Harms, 1998
