PHOTON EMISSION

(March, 2006 Update): A New Text Changes Somewhat This Picture Of Photons In The Following Way. A Negative Photon (0r Photon Hole) May Actually Be A Neutrino. See The Text: http://www.johnkharms.com/neutrino-holes.htm For Further Details.

DO THE PROBABILITIES ASSOCIATED WITH PHOTON EMISSION SUGGEST A PHYSICAL MECHANISM?

THE CREATION OF SPACE

TWO VARIETIES OF PHOTONS--DOES ONE OF THEM GRANT US THE PERCEPTION OF DARKNESS?

IS A PHOTON A PHOTON BEFORE MEASUREMENT?

BY: John K. HARMS

Email: harmsjk3@earthlink.net

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Updated: September, 2000

Addition: December, 2004

Abstract: The text explores the idea that a physical mechanism is responsible for photon emission. This mechanism is an atom's natural interactions with the quantum vacuum. This picture is fundamentally different than the traditional quantum electrodynamics description in the following way: When virtual photons of given energies interact with excited electrons within atoms, the electron's give-up their excess energy to the virtual particles and the virtual photons become the emitted ordinary photons. The virtual particles take from the vacuum and add energy to each ordinary photon in the amount of the Planck energy of 4.14 x 10^-15 eV. This energy is then returned to the vacuum after absorption. The virtual energy that leaves the vacuum as the so-called photon-holes, can create a repulsive effect in the vacuum, if it is uniformly distributed throughout space-time. Suppressed and encouraged emission are explained by this idea as metal plates block or positively reinforce the vacuum radiation available to become ordinary quanta. By utilizing symmetrical reasoning, two types of photons are proposed, both forward and backward-in-time varieties. Louis de Broglie and Andre Michaud have arrived at similar conclusions. This work has been improved in this text by symmetrical analysis with the addition of a new equation describing the physical properties that the two photons should have. Recent faster-than-light experiments and the two-slit experiment can be viewed in this context of this realization. The symmetries also reveal that photon collisions and electron-positron annihilation may be mirror images of each other and (even more important) why this is so. This model describes a new and different relationship between the ordinary and the virtual photons that compose the quantum vacuum and the photons that are emitted in the process. The probable consequences of this model are discussed.

Key Words: Photon, G-photon, Virtual Photon, Quantum Vacuum, Quantum Space-Time, Photon Emission, Photon Absorption, Repulsion, Phase, Backward-In-Time, Spin, Darkness, Polarization, Planck Energy, Photon Holes, Vacuum Energy, Louis de Broglie, Dark Matter

Introduction

A relevant quote from Sir William Bragg relates closely to the ideas presented within this paper: "The important thing in science is not so much to obtain new facts as to discover new ways of thinking about them." In the present case, a change in the conceptual picture of the photon demonstrates why photon emission must be random. How we picture something affects in a dramatic way what information we extract from it. Thus, as will be shown in this manuscript, when we look at the photon in a fundamentally different way, a new characteristic of photon emission is revealed.

In his original model of the atom in 1913, Bohr stated that an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a lower one and in the process emits a single photon. Bohr never said why the electron decays, he just assumed it was true for the internal consistency of his model. There have been few alternate explanations for jumps of electrons to lower orbits.

This text proposes that there may be a physical reason that electrons decay? What if an exited electron dropped to a lower energy level due only to a constant physical interaction with the virtual quanta in the quantum vacuum? In addition, what if an electron only gives its excess excitation energy exclusively to virtual quanta with a discrete (particular) quantity of energy? Thus, when excess energy is available to an atom, the atom interacts with the quantum vacuum leading to the emission of ordinary photons. Unlike any presently known theory, these ordinary photons were previously virtual photons. Suppressed and stimulated emission can be understood as the blockage or positive reinforcement of vacuum radiation by matter. This has an effect upon the timing of the emission of a photon.

Quantum electrodynamics (QED) states basically the idea that quantum fluctuation's "influence" the emission of photons, but it never says that a virtual photon becomes an ordinary photon. If the different viewpoint is adopted that ordinary quanta physically "arise" from the quantum vacuum, the randomness of photon emission suddenly has a definitive reason.

Two varieties of photons, both forward and backward-in-time types, are subsequently discussed in relation with the two-slit experiment and recent faster-than-light experiments. The physicist Louis de Broglie arrived at similar conclusions.

From Virtual To Ordinary And Back

This model proposes that all ordinary electromagnetic photons arise from the virtual world of the quantum vacuum. Virtual photons are predicted by quantum mechanics and are temporary energy bursts that arise from the vacuum itself. Virtual photons have a short-range due to the limitations placed upon them by the uncertainty principle. Virtual photons must readily be absorbed by the vacuum.

Such virtual photons at the Planck energy can be thought of as photons in ground state (G-photon). While this is not technically correct, it provides a convenient name for a virtual photon at exactly the Planck energy which is available to accept energy from any available charged particles. The best way to describe this new picture of photons is with the following Feynman diagrams.

Figure # 1 above shows a Feynman diagram of ordinary photon emission. In Figure # 1, a G-photon (again, a virtual photon at the Planck energy which is available to accept an electron's excitation energy) interacts with an electron at point A. The virtual G-photon becomes an ordinary photon at point A. The curvy line represents the new emitted ordinary photon which is then subsequently absorbed at point B by a different electron. Linear momentum is then transferred from one electron to the other (hence, the change in direction of both electron's path in space and time). After absorption at point B, the ordinary photon returns again to the state called a G-photon, thus, returning to and being re absorbed by the quantum vacuum.

Figure # 2 is similar, except that only one electron interacts with itself. G-photons are again involved in the emission of an ordinary photon at point A and absorption at point B. When virtual quanta of energy h interact with an exited electron, an ordinary photon is produced. Such Feynman diagrams can be constructed for any photon emission situation by the addition of G-photon lines. These diagrams, like all Feynman diagrams, work in both forward and backward directions of time. As we will subsequently see, there are two types of photons, forward and backward-in-time varieties.

Current theory gives no mechanism to explain the probabilistic nature of ordinary photon emission. What is the nature of the "decision" that atoms make regarding the emission of a single photon? Current theory only provides a calculation of the probability that a photon will be emitted within a certain time interval.

This type interaction is well-known in fluorescent light bulbs. An electrical discharge excites mercury vapor atoms in the glass tube, and then random electromagnetic vacuum fluctuations (such as the type we are discussing) "tickle" each excited atom, causing it, at some random time, to emit some of its excitation energy as radiation. Such events, therefore, are triggered by vacuum fluctuations (Thorne, 1994). The emission of radiation by a black hole can be pictured as being similar to this description. The black hole interacts with the quantum vacuum. See the "black hole" text at the link provided at the end of this text.

When virtual photons of a discrete energy interact with an excited electron, the electron will give up its excess energy, allowing the virtual photon to become ordinary. This selection of "proper" virtual quanta (photons with only a discrete acceptable amount of energy) by an electron is only available to virtual quanta of energy h. This translates to a virtual photon energy of 4.14 x 10^-15 eV or a frequency of one hertz (and a wavelength of 3 x 10^8 meters). This quantity of energy is a working hypothesis, an educated guess about the nature of acceptable virtual photons.

This is the quantity of energy that is temporarily borrowed from the quantum vacuum, creating a temporary photon-hole in space. This can be understood to be dark matter; and the process of photon emission is how galaxies fabricate their own dark matter. Dark matter accumulates in gravitational fields and is responsible for the curvature there. Space itself, therefore, has weight.

When an electron becomes excited, many different wavelengths of vacuum energy quanta may interact with it. The electron then selects only one discrete wavelength (as stated above) of vacuum quanta to transfer its excitation energy. Thus, only one discrete wavelength of virtual quanta is allowed to become an ordinary photon.

All other wavelengths of virtual photons produced within the quantum vacuum are not allowed to become ordinary photons. A virtual quantum of precisely the allowed wavelength, now becomes an ordinary photon of a vastly shorter wavelength. Thus, a temporary virtual particle is transformed into an ordinary particle, but now with an unlimited range. One virtual particle (G-photon) of a discrete energy and wavelength becomes any other ordinary photon on the electromagnetic spectrum. The virtual photon then temporarily leaves the quantum vacuum to return after absorption.

As presently, the same probabilistic calculation is made regarding the timing of the emission, but now it is based on an actual physical mechanism. This calculation is something that physics has already, thus, no new mathematics is required. No new factual information is required, just a different way of thinking about the same observational facts. Indeed, photon emission "acts" as if physical particles are flying through space-time and randomly interacting with electrons and thereby producing (becoming) new photons.

In addition, this new picture describes a fundamentally different relationship between virtual and ordinary photons. Can it be that a virtual photon is just a potential ordinary photon, waiting to be actualized by a chance interaction with an excited charged particle?

Absorption is the same process as emission only in reverse. Photons are absorbed in the normal way. The photon merely gives up its energy to a different electron or other charged particle. The primary difference is that when the photon gives up its energy, spin and linear momentum to the atom, the virtual photon of the same energy as the emitted virtual quantum still remains. A virtual particle, with the same energy (in fact, it is the same particle) as prior to emission, is leftover and returns once again to be quickly re absorbed by the quantum vacuum. Thus, during absorption what was an ordinary photon, now rejoins the quantum vacuum. Energy is always conserved. In other words, ordinary photons arise from the quantum vacuum and must return to it after absorption (Harms, 1993).

Suppressed And Encouraged Emission Explained

In 1985, research groups at the University of Washington and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) demonstrated the phenomena of suppressed emission. Excited atoms confined between two metallic plates about a quarter of a millimeter apart, remained in the same (exited) state as long as they were between the plates. These atoms were in special states known as Rydberg states, where the atom has almost enough energy to lose an electron completely. Rydberg atoms are prepared by irradiating ground-state atoms with laser light. These atoms, when placed between the metallic plates, were prevented from radiating for as long as thirteen times the normal excited-state lifetime (Haroche & Raimond, 1993).

The cavity prevents an atom from emitting a photon. This begs an important question: How can the photon "know" even before being emitted, whether the cavity is the right or wrong size? The researchers conclude that the spontaneous emission of a photon by an excited atom is in a sense induced by vacuum fluctuations (Haroche & Raimond, 1993).

This assessment is correct; the long-wavelength G-photons are blocked by the metallic plates reducing the amount of possible interactions with the vacuum fluctuations. Hence, no virtual G-photons are available to become the ordinary photons. This experiment is very similar to the Casimir effect where metal plates do not allow vacuum quanta between them--generating a force pushing the plates together.

The Casimir effect is, as this suppressed emission model proposes, an effect due to vacuum long-wavelength photons. Hence, long-wavelength G-photons at energy h become blocked from between the plates, therefore, they are not available to become the ordinary photons and be emitted. Thus, not only are excited atoms induced by vacuum fluctuations, but the photons originate from the vacuum itself. This is the aspect of the emission process that is generally not understood by physicists at present.

When the size of the cavity is adjusted to match the wavelength of the photon that the atom would naturally emit, vacuum G-photons can flood into the cavity and actually become stronger than they would in free space--this is a wave effect. Emission is, therefore, encouraged. A tuned cavity can undergo transitions whose wavelengths matches the length of the cavity.

When energy is supplied to the medium, the radiation field inside the cavity can buildup to a point where all the excited atoms undergo a stimulated emission and give out their photons inphase. This is the phenomena responsible for devices known as lasers and masers (Haroche & Raimond, 1993). This phenomena may also explain why black holes must glow like hot bodies. See the "Black Holes" text for further details. Link provided below.

The Repulsive Effect Of The Space-Time Vacuum--Photon Holes

It is interesting to note in this idea that vacuum energy is taken away from the quantum vacuum itself each time a photon is emitted. When a virtual quanta of energy h (4.14 x 10^-15 eV) transforms itself into a new ordinary photon during emission, the virtual photon leaves behind in the vacuum an "energy hole" of the identical quantity - h. This is a so-called "photon-hole" in space. This is how galaxies fabricate dark matter and, perhaps, dark matter is composed of particles of precisely this energy.

This photon-hole is only a temporary phenomena; present only as long as the ordinary photon is in-flight and not absorbed elsewhere by a matter particle. After absorption, this energy again returns to the vacuum conserving energy and in-essence filling the photon-hole in the vacuum that was formed during photon emission. Hence, all photons during emission acquire energy h from the quantum vacuum (if only on a temporary basis).

A photon hole is how the author pictures space and matter; the subtraction of energy, a "hole" in the quantum vacuum. Hence, matter and (the vastly less-dense) space are features caused by the absence of energy from the vacuum energy. A photon is the addition of energy to a vacuum energy quanta. Hopefully, this clarifies this important point. It should be noted that these photon holes differ from the ones in the electromagnetic field (as discussed subsequently), because these holes comply with the frequencies of the Higgs or a similar mechanism. Hence, the Higgs gives space and matter holes mass, whereas the holes present in the field are massless.

This photon-hole "punched" in the quantum vacuum has an identical effect of that of negative energy and pressure. If these photon holes, caused by photon emission, are distributed somewhat uniformly throughout the quantum vacuum, this negative pressure can be shown to have a repulsive effect on space-time. This is equivalent to Einstein's cosmological constant or Alan Guth's false-vacuum state to drive cosmic inflation in the early Universe (Guth, 1997).

The primary difference here is that this cosmological constant and false-vacuum state has a definite source; the emission of ordinary photons. Moreover, the acceleration of the Universe's expansion (presently observed) can be pictured as driven by the repulsion (built into space-time) granted by the false-vacuum state. Photon emission may, therefore, be the source of this repulsive space-time effect.

The more that space-time expands, the farther apart the matter in the Universe is from each other, the more vacuum energy becomes "suspended" in this fashion. Each photon emission deposits a small component of negative matter/energy into the vacuum. Hence, the vacuum becomes more and more negative as the Universe expands! See the "Inflation" text for more information about the false-vacuum state and the Universe's increasing expansion. See the link at the end of the text.

That many astronomers add a cosmological constant to their equations (having no idea why or where it comes from), adds weight to this model. This model requires that the quantum vacuum contain photon-holes (matter) and if there is an even distribution of such holes in space-time, a cosmological constant (a repulsive effect) logically follows. If the photon holes are unevenly distributed i.e., clumped together, this is equivalent to the force of gravity (a curved space-time). The author's ideas about gravity can be pictured as an imbalance in the distribution of vacuum radiation (and photon holes) from place to place. See the "Gravity" and "GTR" text links at the end of this text for more information.

The author's working hypothesis is that Planck energy photon holes, from photon emission, are the primary components of the space-grid. These holes necessarily will also have a mass associated with them due to a uniformity with the Higgs mechanism. Hence, space has weight, which might be a somewhat interesting model of dark matter. What we observe to be lines-of-force in electric or magnetic fields may be essentially Planck energy photon holes linked end to end. See the "Space-Grid" text at the link below for more information.

It will be subsequently discussed that such a photon hole is also a hole in space-time. The author's hypothesis is that a photon hole may be a quantum of space. See the "Quantum Space" text below for further details about this idea.

Photon Emission And Entropy

It is discussed in the "Color" and "Decay" texts (see links below) that the emission of a photon reduces the entropy (and curvature) of the body that emitted the photon. Entropy (and energy) is then transported to a different electron on down the line, where the photon becomes absorbed. Entropy is then decreased locally in the material body that absorbed the photon, whilst its curvature is also decreased. The mass of the body increases. However, for the system as a whole, entropy always tends to increase.

Since a photon is described subsequently as a quantum of space, the photon may also be a type of distortion of this same space and time, a compact highly-curved region of space--a type of localized wave in space-time. Photon emission, therefore, may be the process of matter shedding-off its excess curvature to other parts of the Universe. That curvature may be closely related to entropy means in-addition that matter is transporting not only its excess curvature, but also its entropy to other pieces of matter, perhaps, to very large distances.

Two Varieties Of Photons

The emission of photons as literally arising and returning to the vacuum explains quite a bit about the relationship of virtual and ordinary quanta, but what about the nature of the photons themselves? What kinds of photons do exist and what are their characteristics? What is taking place in the electromagnetic field?

The previous work on symmetries has led the author to conclude that there are essentially two types of photons. Conventional quantum electrodynamics (QED), the theory of photons and electrons, identifies four different varieties of photons, called polarizations, that are related geometrically to the directions of space and time (Feynman, 1985). This is not inconsistent with the picture of photons presented by this text.

The symmetrical studies (see "Interesting Symmetries" link below for the details of how this equation was deduced) show that the following equation has (for the author) a perfect degree of symmetry:

Equation # 1)-- Radiation (spin polarization right-hand, inphase, backward-in-time)

+ Matter (spin polarization right-hand, inphase, forward-in-time)

+ Antimatter (spin polarization left-hand, out-of-phase, backward-in-time)

+ Radiation (spin polarization left-hand, out-of-phase, forward-in-time)

= 0

This symmetry equation explains so much, but what we are concerned with here are its ramifications for photons. So let's eliminate the matter-related portion to simplify the equation somewhat; this then yields:

Equation # 2)-- Radiation (spin polarization right-hand, inphase, backward-in-time)

+ Radiation (spin polarization left-hand, out-of-phase, forward-in-time)

= 0

Hence, there are two varieties of photons (or types of radiation) that can be emitted and they come in pairs. To satisfy QED, one might assume that each of these types also comes in two varieties of spin angles as well, but otherwise are identical to each other. Thus, there may be essentially four varieties altogether.

It can be understood in equation # 2 that radiation in the first line (a backward-in-time photon) may be equivalent to darkness when it is out-of-phase and of opposite spin with the second radiation line. Photons with these characteristics are photon holes and photon holes, as seen in the author's other work, may what grants us darkness perception. One might, therefore, call these backward-in-time photons darkness photons. See the "Photon Hole Darkness Hypothesis" at the link below for further details.

The electromagnetic waves can, therefore, be understood as being composed of a mishmash of both photons and photon holes. It can be understood that darkness may be equivalent to matter (which is also photon holes), except that the darkness is massless (similar to ordinary photons). Or, viewed the other way round, matter is darkness with mass! The difference between these two types of photon holes (matter verses darkness) involves the interactions with the Higg's mechanism or a lack thereof. A great deal to contemplate here.

One piece of strong evidence that this is the correct picture of photons comes from Thomas Young's two-slit experiment. Wave fronts sent through two-slits can divide-up into the two varieties of photons. The fronts can, in the wave picture, create an interference pattern on the screen--patterns of light and dark fringes on the screen behind. Photons cancel with photon holes in the regions of space in-front of the screen detector of the two-slit experiment.

In the particle description, this cancellation can occur when the two varieties of photons (photons and holes) meet each other (when combined, they equal zero as in the above equation # 2). Where photons hit the screen, light spots appear, but where holes hit the screen (or other photons), a cancellation occurs and dark spots are present on the screen. Photon holes are the absence of photons, hence, they do not impact the screen. However, holes are very important aspects of the electromagnetic wave as it travels along. A much deeper analysis of all of this and the two-slit experiment in the "Space-Grid" text at the link below.

This can also be pictured from the point of view that an inphase wave meets an out-of-phase wave. Or equivalently, when opposite spins (or polarization's) meet each other there can be a cancellation, or when a forward-in-time photon meets its opposite; a backward-in-time photon. These are all equivalent pictures of cancellation in the two-slit experiment. However, when a forward-in-time quantum meets another forward-in-time quantum or a backward-in-time photon meets another photon heading also in a reverse-time direction, there can be a positive reinforcement of the two photons. It is suggested that Equation # 2 be studied in-depth to best understand these concepts.

A positive reinforcement is the primary reason for the bright spots (where the photons mostly impact) that appear on the screen. Photons traveling through space and meeting photon holes (also traveling through space as an integral part of the same electromagnetic wave) and canceling-out, describes it quite well in the author's opinion. These interactions can be described only by probabilities (a wave function) largely because a photon meeting precisely a minute hole traveling (at the speed of light) through space can only be a chance interaction at best--described only by probabilities. As is described in the "Space-Grid" text in greater detail, what is pictured as probability waves (Schrodinger's wave equation) in quantum mechanics may be essentially the interactions of particles with their opposites!

This description of the two-slit experiment is quite different than the conventional approach usually taught in most physics classes. This is a description based primarily upon symmetries. A similar description (with positrons) can be applied to the electron, which has demonstrated similar effects to the photon in the two-slit experiment. Positrons (electron holes--an aspect of a matter wave), therefore, always accompanies electrons when the electron-wave travels through space and time.

In most normal situations, however, electrons (with a negative charge) are always the dominant features of the matter wave--perhaps, because of the direction of the speed of light in our Universe. See the "Antimatter" text for more about this subject at the link below.

Positrons (electrons traveling backward-in-time) may be separated from their electron partners in high-energy cosmic-ray showers from space colliding with the Earth's upper atmosphere or created in particle accelerators. That positrons always accompany electrons as in integral aspect of the wave may explain also why the two particles always come in pairs when new matter is spontaneously produced i.e., from the quantum vacuum.

Another scenario that is described well by Equation # 2 is the colliding of two photons and the creation of electron-positron pairs. Often, where there is excess energy that is not absorbed in some fashion, conservation of energy requires that new particles must come into being. This is the case of two photons colliding and the resulting energy creates new particles. This can only be the case where opposite photons collide, that is, opposite spin and phase. Such photons are equivalent to photon holes or matter. That photons collide and cancel-out is substantial evidence that two types of photons do exist as is proposed here.

This collision and transformation can be pictured as:

Equation # 3)--Photon # 1 (spin polarization right-hand, inphase, backward-in-time)--Photon Hole--Darkness Photon

+ Photon # 2 (spin polarization left-hand, out-of-phase, forward-in-time)--Photon

--- Yields After Collision ---

Electron (spin polarization right-hand, inphase, forward-in-time)

+ Positron (spin polarization left-hand, out-of-phase, backward-in-time)

Hence, two photons cancel-out and yield an electron/positron pair. A careful analysis of this transformation might picture it only as a direction-in-time transformation. Perhaps, Photon # 1 is actually equivalent to an electron with a different direction-of-time. A photon hole may be a darknesss photon. And, furthermore, that Photon # 2 is essentially a positron only in a reverse-time direction. This whole collision-transformation phenomenon may be actually about time-directions.

It must follow also that during matter-antimatter annihilation (a symmetrical process) that:

Equation # 4)--Electron (spin polarization right-hand, inphase, forward-in-time)

+ Positron (spin polarization left-hand, out-of-phase, backward-in-time)

-- Yields After Interaction Or Collision --

Photon # 1 (spin polarization right-hand, inphase, backward-in-time)--Photon Hole--Darkness Photon

+ Photon # 2 (spin polarization left-hand, out-of-phase, forward-in-time)--Photon

********Both photons are very energetic********

When electron pairs collide, their rest mass/energy is transferred to other objects in any way that conserves energy and momentum. The simplest and most probable way is to transfer half of the energy to each of the other objects located 180 degrees apart from the annihilation. This is very likely to be two identical transfers to mirror-image photons, which are described in detail as Photon # 1 and Photon # 2 above. If the electron-positron pairs have a kinetic energy associated with them, then the creation of other particles is also possible after the annihilation. Hence, Photon # 1 may be a piece of matter or antimatter.

Thus, by applying symmetrical reasoning in Equation # 3 and # 4, it becomes understood that during electron-positron annihilation, one of each type of energetic photon may be the end products. This is a prediction of this model and, moreover, this model describes in detail the physical properties that each photon should have.

Here again, matter-antimatter annihilation may be essentially about (as in Equation # 3 also) time-directions. Therefore, both photon collisions and electron-positron annihilations may only concern the switching of the directions-of-time of the particles. This is, in the author's opinion, a very unusual result--the result of in-depth symmetrical studies.

For further information about the matter-antimatter problem, see the "Antimatter" link below.

Related Discussions

The backward-in-time photons, according to R. Feynman, look identical in all respects to forward-in-time photons, hence, supporting the conclusion that photons are their own antiparticles (Feynman, 1985). It can be understood that a photon hole is the antiparticle partner of the photon.

Skipping back again up to Equation # 2, the author's analysis is that one can see why radiation comes in both particles and waves as both spin (a particle characteristic) and phase (a wave characteristic) are included in the equation. Hence, the quantum mechanical picture of reality is supported by this equation. Indeed, one can see the relationship of spin to phase in each type of particle. When the phase of a photon particle does change, so does its spin and vice versa. In addition, when the phase or spin of the photon does change, so does the direction of time of the photon and, again, also vice versa. As noted by Feynman above, the direction of time of a photon may have no identifiable (observational) consequences.

The author's interpretation of the electromagnetic field above can be understood to be composed of opposites. These are fluctuations about the zero-point once the "grid" (as the author calls it) is disturbed. Note that Photons and Photon Holes as well as Matter and Antimatter are on opposite ends both having electric and magnetic components. These are actually at right angles to each other in three dimensions, so it is graphically quite difficult to display on a two dimensional surface. Hopefully, the reader can understand the author's point here.

The zero-point can also be viewed as the place in the field where the direction of time swaps (or changes). Hence, photon holes travel backward-in-time, whilst photons move forward. Similarly, antimatter is the time-reverse of matter and so on.

When the grid above is set into motion, perhaps, by shaking an electron or other charged particle, at any one point on the graph, line "Z" and "Y" are both up simultaneously as electric and magnetic components. When the vectors change as the wave oscillates and pass down through the zero-point, line "Z" and "Y" are both down at the same time. The wave propagates along in direction "X"--note arrow. Photons are produced as the wave vectors are up and holes are produced when they are in the down direction in the image. The higher the amplitude of the wave, the more photons (and holes) are produced. Shorter wavelengths produce more energetic photons and deeper (more negative) holes i.e., E = hf. As the wave propagates along, the photons and holes move on down the line to the absorption point. Holes (darkness photons), therefore, must accompany photons as an integral part of the wave structure. It is interesting to note that the photons that are emitted may not be the ones absorbed far down the line.

If the electric flux is changing in time (forward and backward) horizontally, the magnetic flux is changing (due to the electric flux) forward and backward in time in a vertical orientation. Both electric and magnetic properties of the space-time wave have a respective circulation about the forward and backward-in-time directions. This circulation is also constantly changing its direction as the wave propagates outward along X. It is necessary, therefore, that there exists two types of photons, distortions of quantum space in both forward and reverse-time directions (photons and photon holes).

One can now understand why the author holds the viewpoint that electromagnetic waves are waves in quantum space. Again, it is quantum space that has the electric and magnetic effects when it is disturbed. Wave motions in the electromagnetic field are, hence, the fluctuations of the directions of space! It appears, more specifically, that electromagnetic phenomena are the fluctuations of time (both forward and backward) through space. This in-turn creates electromagnetic effects which are all characteristics of quantum space. The disturbance in this case is primarily a time-direction effect.

The two-photon picture of light quanta was a conclusion also proposed by Louis de Broglie. De Broglie deduced that the only way for a photon to satisfy Bose-Einstein statistics and the Planck law, whilst conforming to the photoelectric effect, Maxwell's equations and the Dirac model of the electron-positron symmetry, was to picture the photon as being two distinct corpuscles (or "half-photons" as de Broglie called them). These corpuscles, in the de Broglie model, would be complementary like the electron and positron (Michaud, 2000). This author has arrived at very similar symmetrical conclusions as that of Louis de Broglie and Andre Michaud, although Equation # 2 above describes an increased insight into the physical particle and wave characteristics for each type of photon. These symmetries should hold true.

The recent experiments demonstrating faster-than-light photons can be explained as follows: Photons can travel faster-than-light at any moment because they are massless. However, when they do, the forward-in-time photon properties are suppressed and only the backward-in-time aspects of the wave train remain. Photons become photon holes and vice versa. Hence, only the backward-in-time distortions of space-time are left to give the appearance of arriving before they are emitted. This suppression of the forward-in-time properties of the wave takes place primarily when various gasses are introduced into the medium through which the photon particles pass. In a vacuum, the speed of the wave train is always c--what Maxwell discovered. Recent experiments have verified this faster-than-light effect.

What Actually Is A Photon?

The central argument for the photon being a quantum of space-time is that, as Newton noted, space and time must be closely related to motion. Indeed, there can be no space or time without motion of some kind. Moreover, photons have been described as quantized quantities of motion (Michaud, 2000). Therefore, the motion i.e., a quantum of space, is essentially the key to understanding the photon.

This can be further understood by an analysis of space and time as it relates to the thought experiment known as Zeno's paradox. The author will not repeat again the importance and analysis of Zeno's paradox (see the "Time" text below for a complete description of Zeno's paradox) except to say that what Zeno's paradox demonstrates is that space itself must be quantized. It therefore appears logical that if space is quantized that a photon may actually be related to a quantum of space passing through time i.e., a quantum of space-time.

A photon is a quantum of the vibrational energy of the space grid (as in the image above). At any one point on the wave, photons are produced out of the zero-point and then oppositely, photon holes are produced. Hence, it must be the case that these oscillations up and down come in discrete steps--or quanta.

When a particle from the quantum vacuum acquires energy from a charged particle of matter, it may expand from the addition of this excitation energy to become an ordinary photon. Energy, therefore, expands the size of a virtual photon in ground state.

A virtual photon, thus, is a "collapsed" short-range quantum that becomes an ordinary photon when given energy from an excited charged particle. Hence, the primary reason that we do not observe the photons that exist in the quantum vacuum, is because the quanta of space-time that compose the vacuum have a very minute amount of energy within them and are, therefore, too small to be observed directly. However, such vacuum quanta may become observable and measurable as ordinary photons after emission.

The grid-like structure above that the author sometimes refers to as "space foam" is a relatively dense structure of photon holes linked to each other by electromagnetic forces. To the author, this is space. Electromagnetic waves are the vibrations of this grid-like structure by a charged particle. Photons are the quanta associated with this vibration energy. Hence, it may be the energy of the oscillations of linked photon holes by a charged particle (which can be understood to be composite structures of photon holes of similar energy composing a piece of matter) that results in photons. See "Matter As Photon Holes" text at the link below.

Added December 2004--- "The author has come to the conclusion about photons that one cannot actually even speak about photons until there is a measurement of some kind. This, the author calls "an actualization". That is, when the wavelike disturbance of the space-grid impacts a detector and a measurement is taken by a human being (or other electrical measuring device) "looking" at the disturbance, then and only then can we talk about photons. We cannot speak about photons being "in-flight" or some other similar kind of incomplete language as this, because in-flight they are not technically-speaking photons!

When actualization takes place, we may measure photons and photonic energy hitting a measuring device. But, while in-flight, we may not speak about photons at all, because technically speaking they are not photons. So, when Planck's equation says that energy comes in lumps E = hf, this only refers to a state of an EM wave after an actualization or measurement has happened. Prior to this we have only Kant's noumenal "wave" condition.

A measurement, therefore, is a phenomenal condition, rather than flying through space which is a noumenal one. As Kant says, we cannot know about the noumenal World, but only the phenomenal reality in which we live. So, this being the case, Kant would define a "photon" flying through space as an unknowable object-in-itself which lies forever beyond our experience. Upon measurement, Planck's equation applies Universally, but for a EM wave in-flight, it does not!"

Conclusion

The proposal that ordinary photons arise from the quantum vacuum and return to it when absorbed, has the consequence that the vacuum energy contributes a very minute amount of energy to each ordinary photon. This energy difference is proposed to be exactly the Planck energy of 4.14 x 10^-15 eV and all photons must have their energy increased by this quantity for this model to be valid.

However, this energy cannot be accounted for by the difference in the energy levels of the electron which absorbs the photon, because the act of measurement (absorption of the photon) causes this excess photon energy to quickly return to the vacuum and disappear. In other words, the extra energy h is not included in the energy levels of the absorbed electron. It is energy temporarily borrowed from the quantum vacuum and it returns to the vacuum after absorption. Thus, there is no free energy as energy is accounted for during the exchange by being conserved.

As a consequence a photon's energy before absorption is higher than what the electron actually absorbs again by energy h, because the original leftover energy of the virtual photon must return to the vacuum. Thus, an absorbing electron actually must contain less energy than the photon it absorbed. This may be a testable prediction which must be true and can falsify the photon emission model.

Other consequences include: photons must have higher frequencies, by exactly one hertz, than the expected difference of the energy levels of the electrons from which they received energy. Additionally, photon wavelengths must include a very long 3 x 10^8 meters to be added to all emitted wave fronts. Once again, the act of measurement may cause these effects to disappear.

The cosmological constant may have a source mechanism; it is the emission of photons, leading to the increasing expansion of the Universe now observed. That astronomers need a cosmological constant to fit observations of the cosmos adds weight to this hypothesis. See the "Quantum Space" text below for more information.

The two varieties of photons (photons and photon holes) proposal is probably not directly testable, however, symmetrical reasoning indicates that this should indeed be the case. Past work by Louis de Broglie (and others) arriving at similar conclusions adds further weight to the hypothesis. Young's two-slit experiment has a different explanation granted this picture of the Universe.

Moreover, the prediction is put-forth that electron-positron annihilation yields the two types of photons that we have been discussing. It may also be the case that photon collisions and electron-positron annihilations are only about the switching of the directions-of-time of the particles. This consequence is the result of a symmetrical analysis of these particles.

That photons have now been measured to exceed the speed of light (traveling backward-in-time), is a strong indicator also that this idea may be on the right track.

Related Links To The Author's Other Works

A similar idea to the emission proposal, is the author's extensive darkness and blackness research over a fifteen year period. Actually, this photon emission model was a possibility not mentioned in these four darkness and blackness models at: http://www.johnkharms.com/Black.htm .

The symmetrical logic of the "two photon varieties" proposal can be viewed at: "Interesting Symmetries" : http://www.johnkharms.com/symmetry.htm .

The Photon Hole Darkness Hypothesis: http://www.johnkharms.com/darkhole.htm .

Other Related Works:

The Space Grid (closely related to this text) at: http://www.johnkharms.com/grid.htm .

Inflation Model at: http://www.johnkharms.com/inflation.htm .

Gravity Model at: http://www.johnkharms.com/gravitation.htm .

Decay Model at: http://www.johnkharms.com/decay.htm .

Color Model at: http://www.johnkharms.com/color.htm .

Black Holes text at: http://www.johnkharms.com/blackholes.htm .

Time Model at: http://www.johnkharms.com/time.htm .

Quantum Space at: http://www.johnkharms.com/space.htm .

Matter As Photon Holes at: http://www.johnkharms.com/matter.htm .

Antimatter at: http://www.johnkharms.com/antimatter.htm .

Go To HOME

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank Dennis Anthony, Andre Michaud, Walter Babin and Milo Wolff for their contributions to this text.

References

Feynman, R. P., 1985, QED; The Strange Theory Of Light And Matter, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, P. 98, 120

Guth, A. H., 1997, The Inflationary Universe, Perseus Books, Reading, Massachusetts, P. 172-173

Halliday, D., Resnick, R., 1988, Fundamentals Of Physics, Third Ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York, P. 1000

Harms, J. K., June/September 1993, The BASRA Journal, Article Title: The G-Photon Concept, P. 72

Haroche, S., Raimond, J. M., April 1993, Scientific American, Article: Cavity Quantum Electrodynamics, New York, P. 54-62

Michaud, A., 2000, Expanded Maxwellian Geometry Of Space, SRP Books, Quebec, Canada, P. 27, 29 . Visit Andre Michaud's Website: http://www.microtec.net/srp/

Thorne, K. S., 1994, Black Holes And Time Warps, W. W. Norton And Co., New York, P. 431

Wolfson, R., 1997, Einstein's Relativity And The Quantum Revolution, Part II, Lecture 12, Video, The Teaching Co., Springfield, VA

Reader's Note: Proper References And/Or Acknowledgments To This Text Are Appreciated.