inertia

The Unification Of Special And General Relativity

Inertia, Kinetic Energy And Negative Radiation Pressure

By: John K. Harms

Kinetic Energy Section Update: August 2004

Abstract:

This model unifies the theories of special and general relativity. The model builds on the author's previous work on gravity. In the author's earlier gravity model, gravity is envisioned as negative radiation pressure, a radiation void that exists within all matter particles. The radiation void causes the curvature in space-time responsible for gravity. This text proposes that a radiation void also exists at the leading edges of all bodies in relative motion. Perhaps, this is a shift of the gravity void at the leading edge of the direction of motion. The void causes objects to "fall" in uniform motion and resist any changes in that forward motion. This is the law of inertia. An object's forward motion is maintained by constant photon impulses from behind, brought about by photons attracted to the void at the object's leading edge. The void can be generated by particle spin or wave methods. The special relativity properties of mass increase, space contraction and time dilation with speed are pictured also as properties of the space-time void that fast moving objects "fall" into. Time-reversed photons may be related to time dilation. Mach's principle is viewed as a description of rotational inertia only, and not uniform acceleration. For there to a unification of special and general relativity, time dilation, mass increase and space contraction must also be characteristics of the gravitational field. Symmetrical reasoning is used to extract predictions from this model--these are discussed. It is assumed that objects in a very fast uniform motion and acceleration by very strong gravitational fields have equivalent effects on space-time. This viewpoint leads to several new predictions about gravitational fields and well as different ideas about black holes. Furthermore, kinetic energy formula 1 / 2 mv^2 can be understood to be conceptually connected to Einsteinian E = mc^2 as described by the sections in the text below. This was an August 2004 insight and update to this text.

Key Words: Inertia, Gravity, Negative Radiation Pressure, Unification, Mass, Momentum, Angular Momentum, Special Relativity, Mach's Principle, Black Holes, Acceleration, Velocity, Kinetic Energy

Introduction

Special and general relativity are usually viewed as entirely separate theories. It is assumed that special relativity fails when gravity becomes important, and this is the domain where general relativity applies (Thorne, 1994). Picturing inertia as a negative radiation pressure phenomena allows a unification of both of Einstein's concepts.

The author's previous work on gravity, that gravity is negative radiation pressure, permits a unified formulation of general relativity with the special theory of relativity. This can be accomplished only if both highly accelerated frames and uniform reference frames approaching speed c treat space-time curvature in a similar fashion. This is assumed to be true by this model.

It is commonly known that gravitational mass and inertial mass are equivalent. Einstein utilized this idea as the basis for his general theory of relativity. The equivalence principle makes the general theory a theory of gravity. The equivalence principle suggests that where there is gravity there must also be inertia. These are characteristics common to all material bodies.

The conclusion of the gravity text also available on this Website, is that gravity is "caused" by negative radiation pressure, a non-uniformity of pressure in the vacuum. This is the author's fundamental explanation of what "drives" gravity--the actual cause of gravity. That pressure causes gravity is in agreement with general relativity.

It is proposed in this text that gravity and inertia must be related since the principle of the equivalence of gravity and inertial mass is found to be true (although not precisely known why).

Einstein was disappointed that the general theory did not explain inertia, since he also saw a close gravity and inertia connection. Because gravity is pictured as negative radiation pressure by this author's other work, inertia might also be due to negative radiation pressure. This idea not only explains inertia, but also describes well the special relativistic effects which take place as material objects travel at speeds close to that of light.

In this text, special and general relativity are seen as different aspects of the same space-time radiation void. Both ideas, hence, are unified by this picture and new predictions follow from this line of symmetrical reasoning.

Einstein made the statement that general relativity was "a good first step toward understanding gravitation". This leaves the general theory as a somewhat incomplete description of gravity on its own, since general relativity breaks down at singularities, places where space-time ends. In addition, general relativity does not describe the inner-workings (machinery) of inertia. The principle of equivalence demonstrates that there should be a relationship between gravity and inertia. When gravity is pictured as caused by a negative radiation pressure, the connection with inertia may be revealed.

The Negative Radiation Void And Inertia

There must be a close relationship between gravity and inertia. Before Einstein gave us general relativity, this connection was not as clear. However, it is now evident to this author that gravity and inertia are interrelated.

The earlier work (also available on this Website) describes gravity as a negative radiation pressure leading to a nonuniformity of the vacuum radiation. This effect results in a space-time curvature. Perhaps, the effect known as inertia is also caused by a similar negative radiation pressure "void". This void leads to a gravitational field, a positive curvature of space-time. In this text, it is proposed that the radiation void exists at the leading edge of all material particles or matter waves toward their direction of motion. Perhaps, this is a forward-shift in the gravitational field in the direction of relative motion.

Picture this as a golf ball (or some other round object) very close to the edge of a hole with a steep but smooth slope on all sides. This can be pictured using an "embedding diagram" with the ball in two dimensions falling into a hole in three dimensions (Thorne, 1994).

As velocity and inertia increase, the ball moves further down into the space-time hole. This hole is actually composed of space and time curved into a fifth physical dimension, thus, it may be more analogous to a space-time tunnel. The tunnel is sometimes mentioned in special relativity as a visual phenomenon to observers at high speed. A body in uniform motion is literally falling into the radiation void. Each location of a particle on the space-time surface fabric represents a different rate that time flows, contraction of space and apparent mass, as measured by inertial and gravitational effects.

The size of the void, which is actually an absence of vacuum radiation, would be determined by the kinetic energy accumulated in the direction of relative uniform motion. As objects approach the speed of light, the body travels further down the space-time slope into this negative energy void. Energy and momentum increase close to speed c. This has the same effect as if the bodies mass has increased. The object, therefore, resists further acceleration by any force in a different direction because the object becomes increasingly attracted to the space-time void. This is why massive bodies resist any changes in their motion.

The motive force of an object is created by the radiation void. The void emits, as proposed in the gravity text, a shower of long-wavelength photons from all directions into the radiation void. The void, hence, attracts radiation. Toward the rear of the object in motion, such long-wavelength photons provide an impulse (force) in the direction of motion. It's as if radiation were pushing the object in uniform motion from behind, maintaining its forward motion and resisting any motions other than straight ahead. Hence, radiation pressure maintains an objects forward speed and resists any changes in the direction of motion.

Matter continues its motion in a straight line because it is literally "falling" endlessly into the space-time well, the radiation void. A matter particle in motion is following the path of least resistance as it travels in uniform motion, pushed from behind by radiation (also) falling into the radiation void. An object can never fall completely into the space-time void, but only approach it asymptotically. All moving objects are falling through a space and time tunnel that their own relative motion essentially has created, hence, relative motion itself involves small changes in space and time.

A space-time void normally will accelerate a material body, but this can never take place on its own because of the conservation of energy principle. Since energy cannot be fabricated out of nothing, the object cannot accelerate on its own, but only travel at a uniform speed in its own direction of motion. Thus, in an inertial frame, energy is conserved. This is somewhat different than a gravitational field which always adds gravitational energy to bodies to accelerate them toward a massive body. Hence, conservation of energy is the primary reason that acceleration and uniform motion are not exactly equivalent--the difference between special and general relativity.

An object in uniform motion might "want" to accelerate into the space-time well, but the 1st. law of thermodynamics prevents this from taking place. All bodies conserve kinetic energy and momentum. Thus, all objects move in a completely uniform motion unless an outside force is applied. This is the law of inertia.

If there were no inertia, the speed of an object can be infinite. Hence, it is inertia itself that prevents an object from completely falling into the space-time well, traveling at the speed of light or faster. Therefore, the key to faster-than-light travel (from normal objects below speed c) is to eliminate a bodies inertia and inertial effects.

As Einstein pointed out, a person free-falling in a gravitational field does not feel his/her own weight. This for Einstein was equivalent to a gravity-free Universe. This is where the laws of special relativity apply, a pure inertial frame of reference. Only the laws of special relativity are valid in free-fall. Moreover, all freely-falling reference frames must have the same laws of physics (Thorne, 1994).

If, however, a body is free-falling into a space-time void (a gravitational field), special and general relativity must be equivalent. This is because the laws of special relativity are true in all freely-falling frames in a gravitational field, hence, all gravitational fields must also obey the laws of special relativity. Therefore, a gravitational field is equivalent to uniform motion at high speed, speeds close to c.

One might adapt for a moment one of Einstein's thought experiments for a somewhat different (but equally relevant) purpose: Since Newtonian mechanics predicts the same result for uniform motion as being at rest on the Earth (in a gravitational field), there should be no reason to distinguish between an object in uniform motion and one in an accelerated frame of reference (Nova, 1979). Hence, if Newtonian mechanics is correct, the laws that govern both uniform and accelerated frames should be identical!

When a force acts on a moving object, the object resists any change in momentum or angular momentum. What we call momentum P = mv is actually a body dropping further into the energy void at its leading edge. At the speed of light (if this were possible for a material body), the object falls completely into the radiation energy void and the body has infinite gravitational mass (and inertial mass). Perhaps in this case, the object's kinetic energy opens-up a wormhole and the body enters, leaving the physical Universe through hyperspace. Inertia must utterly disappear for this to take place! Kinetic energy can be pictured as the buildup of radiation behind the high-speed object. Perhaps, the void at the leading edge is essentially a wormhole and at the speed of light, the body falls-in! This idea is discussed in greater detail the "inflation" text. See link below.

Gravitational mass must therefore increase with velocity, because the space-time void adds gravitational energy to the object as the body sinks deeper into the space-time tunnel. At the speed of light, the radiation tunnel and the object are equivalent and gravitational and inertial mass become infinite. Since gravitational mass and inertial mass are both equivalent, they must both rise as velocity increases.

Any force which is applied to change the motion of a body, regardless of the bodies state of uniform motion, is resisted. A force was defined by Isaac Newton as F = ma. Forces may cause changes in momentum as well as angular momentum. There is, therefore, an accumulation of long-wavelength radiation from behind all bodies in uniform motion. This is the phenomena of inertia and the reason that inertia (and momentum) must increase with velocity in accordance with P = mv as defined by Newton.

When a body is accelerating in the direction of its motion, the body "feels" a resistance to that motion. In this case, energy conservation resists further sinking into the space-time tunnel. In angular motion, a body is constantly accelerating and "feels" the tendency to resist the force in a circle. The body "wants" to travel in uniform motion only, to fall into the void in only one direction, the direction of uniform motion. Forces differing from the direction of falling into the space-time void are always resisted. This phenomena is actually better described by Mach's principle.

Mach's Principle

Ernst Mach's proposal for rotational inertia is that the matter and energy in the Universe causes objects to resist acceleration (Wolff, 1990). In the case of rotational inertia, the author agrees with Mach on this point. Rotational acceleration does appear to be absolute, and this was also pointed-out by Newton. The acceleration in a circle does appear relative to the "fixed" stars, but exactly how this applies to uniform acceleration in a straight-line is (to this author) not as clear. Perhaps, however, rotational inertia may be relative not only to the fixed stars, but to the bodies gravitational field which does not rotate with the body. In addition, how does Mach's principle cause space-time effects for bodies in uniform motion close to the speed of light? The fact is, this line of logic (Mach's principle) does not explain how space and time are joined at speeds in uniform motion close to c.

Therefore, there must be a fundamental difference between rotational acceleration and uniform acceleration. It is agreed that both are indeed accelerations as defined by Newton as a change in velocity, but there are two different effects taking place here which both appear equivalent. The model of the space-time tunnel proposed by this text works best for uniform acceleration in a straight-line (where Mach's principle is least convincing), but Mach's principle better describes rotational inertia, where this model has greater difficulty. Hence, there are two different acceleration effects (rotational and uniform) taking place here, although they give the appearance of being equivalent. They are not.

Inertia And Position On The Space-Time Slope

When a car brakes in a straight line at a high speed, the braking force is resisted and the body must pull itself backward up-the-walls out of the space-time void. The accumulation of radiation at the rear of the car, causes the car to resist braking. Braking is resisted because the car has inertia.

Inertia is defined by this text as a bodies present location on the multidimensional wall (or slope) of the space-time curvature (tunnel). Forces seek to change a bodies position (or location) on this space-time wall; these forces are resisted. When a force acts and does overcome this resistance, it changes a bodies position on the slope. The body remains in this new location until a new force acts. A bodies energy increases or decreases because one must expend energy to change the location on the walls of the space-time slope. Associated with these locations on the slope is the amount of photon radiation falling into the void. The cause of inertia is this radiation pressure behind the object in motion.

Matter Waves, Inertia And Kinetic Energy

When pictured in the context of waves, one might view the quality known as inertia as the cancellation of the leading edge of the matter wave by incoming vacuum radiation. In the other text on "Color" (see address below), matter waves that cancel incident radiation are pictured as what we experience as color. Indeed, gravity can be understood as the cancellation of long-wavelength radiation by matter waves.

Perhaps, inertia can be understood as the cancellation of matter waves by incoming radiation caused by a bodies motion through space-time. The leading edge of the wave is canceled (and somewhat collapses) by motion through the background radiation. Where background radiation is the same as the matter wave, they cancel (dampen) each other. This is the premise of the "Color" text. This cancellation causes a radiation void at the leading-edge of the matter wave.

Because the leading-edge collects more radiation due to its motion then the hind side of a body, only the side facing the most radiation creates the space-time void in that direction. For example, when you run in the rain, more rain hits your face than your back. Cancellation is, therefore, greater at the leading edge. This leading edge, hence, has inertia from its own forward motion.

Perhaps, this propels the wave forward by flattening-out the matter wave in front of the wave. The wave is attracted to the flattened area because it is the path of least resistance. The wave "falls" toward the space-time curvature caused by the cancellation of the radiation background in that direction. Thus, the wave tends to travel more toward that direction and resists movement in any other directions--the law of inertia. Forces change the nature of the matter wave either faster, slower or in other directions.

However, the void created by waves also attracts photons and radiation pressure could be the cause of inertia (as described above).

In the context of waves, it is possible that very different wavelengths of background radiation are involved in inertia than gravity, hence, gravity and inertia might be fundamentally different frequencies of waves. Both do create voids is space-time, although perhaps at somewhat different frequencies. However, on the other hand, the wavelengths may be the same for gravity as for inertia. This is left as an open question.

(Kinetic Energy Section Added August 2004): "An new insight concerning waves and kinetic energy may be appropriate as long as we are on the subject of inertia; inertia and kinetic energy being related topics in the author's mind. The author views kinetic energy (1 / 2 mv^2) as being essentially equivalent to Einstein's E = mc^2. How?

For the author, in the wave picture of things, Einstein's equation may be simply a special case for ordinary matter at below the speed of light. So, the "c" in Einstein's relation can be applied to any body in motion at velocity "v" making the equations (almost) equivalent. So, E = mv^2, where "v" becomes a "c" for at the speed of light "bodies" such as photons of light (which are essentially massless). But, what about the 1 / 2?? Where does it come from?

The author proposes that the 1 / 2 comes about as a result of the wave picture of matter. That is, matter is essentially wavelike. So, an Upwave + a Downwave = 0. Indeed, the wave must be 1 / 2 the time up and 1 / 2 the time down, however many waves a piece of matter may be composed of. Yes, matter may be composed of a mishmash of many waves, but all waves at any one point must be half the time up and half the time down.

It is notable that the spin of all matter particles (which all operate below the speed of light) is also 1 / 2, so in this view, there may be a deep and intimate connection between particle spin and its wavelike behavior. Therefore, waves and particle spin may be in some fashion entwined."

For a further discussion of kinetic energy and the Einsteinian equation see the "Electricity" text at the link below.

Particle Spin And Inertia

The spin of particles in opposite directions can also have the effect of cancellation, thus, also generating a void as described above. A body in uniform motion in a particular direction increases the possibility that it may encounter other particles of opposite spin--as described above; like running in the rain. Hence, the leading edge of a particle may fall into the tunnel in space-time created by the cancellation of itself with particles of opposite spin. Therefore, the forward motion of a body creates its own space-time tunnel. This is exclusively a particle description, but is equivalent to the wave approach as described in the last section. There are both particle and wave descriptions of inertia; as there should be.

Potential Energy

Potential energy has an effect on space-time curvature. The radiation void must also be present where there is potential energy. For example, if energy is exerted and a spring is compressed by one's own hands. The compression of the spring has potential energy. This energy can be utilized to do work.

Since force was required to compress the spring, there must be a minute space-time gravity tunnel generated within the spring. Perhaps, this is the negative radiation void associated with the spring's own gravitation (see gravity text below). The radiation void associated with gravity is made deeper by the compression of the spring, hence, inertial and gravitational mass both must slightly increase.

An increase in the spring's gravitational mass has other consequences:

Firstly, the spring must appear to outside observers (in different reference frames) be very slightly smaller causing a Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction in all directions. As is subsequently discussed, the effect of adding energy to a body is to contract physical objects. Secondly, the increase in gravitation will curve the space-time around the spring causing a slight time dilation. However, such effects are very minute.

To follow is the special relativity model--a unified system with inertia, special relativity and general relativity.

Special Relativity And The Radiation Void

It has been said that the special theory of relativity can never be explained in logical and understandable terms. That objects contract in the direction of motion, gain mass and dilate time as they approach light speed can never be logically understood. We are told not to look for physical mechanisms at work. Physics students are frequently told just to accept relativity as true based upon the underlying logic as laid out by Einstein. Perhaps, the consequences of relativity which are now experimentally verified can be logically understood if one also accepts a few other assumptions:

1) Gravity is a negative radiation pressure differential, the cause of the curvature of space-time. This is the premise of the author's other work on gravitation.

2) A moving object relative to another object generates a negative radiation void at its leading edge in its direction of motion (as described above). Such voids can attract photons leading to radiation pressure.

3) Moving objects increasingly "fall" into this space-time curvature "tunnel" if they are accelerated in the direction of motion. This affects the nature of the object's space and time frames of reference.

The effects of motion as a material body approaches the speed of light are usually described as:

1) Mass Increase: As mentioned earlier, mass must increase as an object falls into the space-time void due to its motion. The radiation void (a non-uniformity of vacuum radiation), as discussed in the text on gravitation, is gravity by definition. Both an object's gravity and its inertia must increase. Inertial mass and gravitational mass are equivalent, hence, an object "acts" as if it contains more matter than it does "at rest" on the Earth. This is an "apparent" increase in mass, because we measure mass either by its inertial or gravitational effects.

For example, at 86% of c, mass appears to double. Hence, in any experiment measuring an objects inertia (momentum) at 86% of the speed of light, the object "weighs" twice as much as the object does "at rest" on the surface of the Earth. The object has gained inertial as well as gravitational mass. Indeed, due to the equivalence principle, the object has twice its gravitational attraction at 86% of c than at rest (Wolff, 1990).

Einstein said that uniform speed is energy, thus, objects approaching speed c have more energy and therefore more mass. An alternative method of envisioning this phenomena is that the elements that we "measure" as mass i.e., gravity and inertia, are both increasing.

As an object approaches speed c, the object is falling deeper into the multidimensional hyperspace tunnel created by its relative motion. Radiation pressure causes inertia, an accumulation of energy in the form of radiation behind an object at high speed. This adds both gravitational and inertial mass to the body, hence, the apparent mass increases. Hence, in other frames of reference, the apparent mass of our frame has increased.

Mass is a measure of how hard a body resists a change in velocity i.e., acceleration, hence, the space-time void proposed by this text must be strongly related to mass. Mass increases with velocity because mass and space-time curvature have an intimate relationship. Moreover, the radiation accumulation increases with speed as the void becomes stronger, as the moving object descends into it.

2) Time Dilation: Since motion near the speed of light dilates time, precisely how does this take place? Because objects moving faster drop lower into the space-time well (or tunnel), it is possible to see how time dilates with motion. This is rather like the gravitational effect on time near the surface of the Earth; time slows as the force of gravity increases. This is due to acceleration, the same effect that bends light. Gravitational red-shift is also a related effect due to the attraction of photons to the increasing radiation void with high velocity.

Because motion drops an object deeper into the space-time void at its leading edge, time must dilate the deeper the moving body descends into the tunnel. Since high speeds close to c dilate time, so must a gravitational field as an object increases acceleration. The effects upon space-time of acceleration and high velocity are pictured as equivalent.

The effect is similar to increasing gravitational energy. The faster the object is to speed c, the more time dilates in accord with Einstein's equations. The factor that is used so much in relativity is known as Gamma and is equal to: 1/sq. root of (1-v^2/c^2).

Therefore, clocks slow in gravitational fields for the same reason in special as they do in general relativity--both effects are related to gravity and gravity wells. Hence, there can be no fundamental difference between traveling close to speed c in a space ship and being in a very strong gravitational field. This is a vitally important observation for unification to be valid.

Time dilation in a gravitational field automatically follows from this unification, whereas in Einstein's identical conclusions, the reasoning is somewhat indirect and abstract. Thus, it follows that time dilation in a gravitational field must be true in this unification of the two ideas.

In the author's text concerning "Time" it is proposed that time is metabolic rate. One's metabolic rate increases with velocity and this would be true in accelerated frames of reference also. Hence, falling into a space-time tunnel as one's velocity approaches c would increase one's metabolic rate and, therefore, slow time. See the "Time" text at the link below for further details.

3) Lorentz-Fitzgerald Space Contraction: Space contracts for the same reason. Because falling deeper into the space-time well must contract objects in their direction of motion, one can see that gravitational fields (acceleration) must contract space as well. Indeed, gravity bends light and this is a space contraction of the space-time near a massive object. Distances are contracted by very fast spaceships vastly shortening the distances to other planets, if one can travel close enough to the speed of light.

Perhaps, the void at the leading edge and the radiation pressure from behind begin to squash objects in their direction of motion when high enough speeds are achieved. Moreover, when objects travel fast near the speed of light, they contract distances to other planets because they are deeper into the space-time well, a type of wormhole. Again, this void is analogous (and equivalent) to a gravity well that a fast object is falling into in its direction of motion. Hence, observers in outside frames see our frame as contracting and vice versa.

Moreover, if one is on a massive planet and looks-up into space, one might see a circle of light red shifted at the edges and blue shifted in the middle. This is the essence of the space-time void and is discussed below.

An interesting additional effect is tidal forces on objects that approach speed c. Since tidal forces (differences in gravity from place to place) take effect in very strong gravitational fields, objects that approach light speed must "feel" tidal forces as well. The tidal effect is a stretching-out of a body in a strong gravitational field. This takes place even as outside observers may observe a length contraction of the object. Thus, at speeds close to that of light, an object begins to stretch-out and if speed c is ever reached (which it actually can never be), the stretching becomes infinite. The object, hence, falls into the space-time well and through the wormhole (which is actually, in essence, what the void is!). However, there are physical limits to this tidal stretching, as there are limits to the purity of the void. See the "Black Holes" text concerning wormholes at the link below.

4) Red-Shift: Light escaping a strong gravitational field gets red-shifted i.e., the Doppler shift. Fast light-emitting objects close to c, red-shift light as they travel away from us and blue-shift as they travel toward us. If we didn't already know about the Doppler shift of these two very different phenomena (gravity and high speed), we could predict it using the unification of both ideas.

Gravitational red-shift is closely related to time dilation as waves of light get stretched in a gravitational field, hence, things on the surface of a massive appear to happen slower when seen from orbit around it (Hawking, 1996). Since photons are attracted to the void, one can see why red-shift must take place. Moreover, red-shift should also take place in a uniformly moving object as its void increases at high speeds close to c.

What Actually Is The Space-Time Tunnel?

It is known that objects in uniform motion close to speed c generate a tunnel in their field of vision. This is described as the entire field of view bent by space-time to a round circle in front of the object in uniform motion. The outer edges of the tunnel are reddish, due to the red shift of light and the center of the tunnel is blue from the blue shift of light (Sagan, 1989). This description is identical to the void-tunnel described above. An object's uniform motion generates the visual tunnel, a visual manifestation of the accumulated negative radiation pressure void. The radiation void causes the tunnel to appear. This tunnel is what is responsible for the object's inertia, and at the speed of light, the object falls into the wormhole, a tunnel of warped space-time into hyperspace at the center of the void. But again, this can never happen to an ordinary massive object.

Hence, if one could observe the radiation void, it is a tunnel of wrapped space-time red on the edges and blue in the middle. Starlight passing through the space-time tunnel at its center is attracted by the void, the absence of radiation. Such radiation is therefore blue-shifted. The same force responsible for blue-shifting at the middle of the field of view is that responsible for the object's inertia in the direction of motion, a force on the moving object. At the visual sides of the tunnel, radiation is bent and is working against the space-time void, thus, the light is red-shifted around the edges.

One can see the gravitational field of an object also as a round circle of red-shifted light on the edges and blue-shifted light at the center. The visual aspects of this are obscured by the object itself as well as the weakness of gravity in normal situations. In a very strong gravitational field, perhaps, such an effect could be observed. This is equivalent to the well-known red-shift of light in a gravitational field as discussed above.

All voids attract photons (and therefore bend light). This has the effect of creating a shower of long-wavelength quanta traveling inward toward the void. This generates, in the case of gravitation, the force of gravity or, in the case of uniform motion; inertia.

Relative Motion

Since all motion is relative, measuring the void at the leading edge of fast moving particles is relative to the observer. For example, since it is the gravitational field that might shift to cause inertial effects, why don't observers notice it? The reason is that observers on the Earth can never notice that the Earth's gravitational field has shifted (or a space-time tunnel exists at the leading edge of the Earth's motion) because the Earth is in our frame of reference. Our bodies have the same forward shift as the Earth. Relative to our frame of reference, the Earth has no forward-shifting gravitational field. Moreover, we can never travel fast enough (to a different frame of reference) to make this observation about the Earth. Observers in different frames might notice the shift of our frame, but we can never notice or measure it ourselves. This is relativity at work.

Observers in different reference frames may not be able to measure the forward shift of our gravitational field as they are moving differently, just as we may not be able to measure the forward shift of (say) Jupiter. In addition, slower objects such as Jupiter may have only a slight shift forward of its space-time void, hence, it may be too slight to measure anyway. Perhaps, the faster planet Mercury would be a good candidate to measure the forward inertial shift of its gravitational field. However, even Mercury may not be speedy or massive enough.

Probable Consequences

Einstein found that the laws of physics were the same not only for reference frames in uniform motion (as in special relativity), but also for accelerated reference frames. This led to general relativity, Einsteinian gravity. In a similar way using symmetrical arguments, accelerated frames should have the same characteristics as uniform motion. Two consequences follow from these symmetries:

1) The gravitational tug of massive bodies (such as massive stars) will be found to be stronger than the amount of matter they contain. This is because the high acceleration at a massive star's surface increases the gravitational and inertial mass of the star. Hence, similar to a high velocity object close to speed c, gravitational mass and inertial mass increase not only with uniform velocity, but at very high accelerations (gravity) as well.

This prediction follows from the comparison of the radiation void within planets and the proposed void at the leading-edges of fast moving bodies--because special and general relativity are now unified. Perhaps, this prediction is not obvious on our own Sun because the acceleration due to gravity is not quite high enough (or perhaps our knowledge is somewhat limited about the Sun). On a super-massive star (as in high-velocity particles), gravitational mass should substantially increase. Again, it will be discovered that there is not enough matter in these objects to justify their high gravitational attractions.

Moreover, this can be translated to mean that Newtonian gravity breaks down when gravitational fields become very strong. When gravity fields are strong, mass increases in the same way as a fast spaceship close to speed c increases its mass, momentum and energy. To observers on a massive planet, objects in outer-space will appear more massive than they actually are. This consequence is consistent with general relativity which grants the same prediction (Thorne, 1994). In this text, it is explained "why" strong gravitational objects do increase their mass, whereas Einstein's reasoning is rather indirect on this subject.

2) If high-speed objects close to the speed of light contract in their direction of motion and this is analogous to the gravitational field (as is presumed by this text), then massive stars should contract in their direction of motion (as objects at very high speeds do). Since the gravitational field of a star is in a sphere around the star, massive stars must be actually bigger than they appear. Massive stars are Lorentz-Fitzgerald contracted and appear smaller to outside observers because they have such a strong acceleration due to gravity.

Therefore, massive objects contract inward from all directions. This consequence follows (same as prediction # 1) from the assumption that the effects of special relativity (uniform motion) are actually the same as gravitational effects (accelerated motion) on space and time. The effects of extremely high acceleration are the same as the effects of a high-velocity. Again, these predictions follow from the unification of the general and special relativity theories. Uniform motion is accelerated motion limited by energy conservation.

To observers on a very massive planet, it is outer-space that appears contracted. Their own planet appears normal (in their reference frame).

The Lorentz-Fitzgerald Contraction Of Black Holes

The above model concerning space contraction leads one to a rather interesting conclusion about black holes. A black hole not only appears black because light cannot escape its strong gravity, but because a black hole's strong gravity visually Lorentz-Fitzgerald contracts the surface of the star in all directions to a single point in space-time. The singularity is a point of contraction.

The escape velocity of the star reaches light velocity and the star's surface becomes Lorentz-Fitzgerald contracted to a singularity point in space-time. All massive stars should Lorentz-Fitzgerald contract to some degree. However, if the star becomes massive enough (perhaps from inward compression), the object will contract to a point. Again, contraction may be due to the inward pressure from incoming photons.

When a star runs-out of its nuclear fuel, it may begin to gravitationally collapse in on-itself. This collapse and compression strengthens the star's gravity and will curve-up space-time to the degree that Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction will make the surface appear to outside observers that it has collapsed. To an observer inside the star (assuming this was possible), no difference at all will be noticed. However, to inside observers looking upward, outer-space will look contracted to a point.

In the same way that length contraction is not noticed within a spacecraft, observers within the star do not notice the complete contraction of the star from all directions. The star itself appears normal to "inside" observers.

Black holes will also appear to be more massive than the matter they once contained. To observers in the black hole, outer-space will appear to have infinite mass.

These conclusions are quite different than traditional black hole theories.

Perhaps, the Earthly observations of dark matter, that galaxies (and indeed the Universe) appears more massive than the matter it contains is actually an effect due to the Earth's own gravity--an effect due to relativity. Because we are in the Earth's frame of reference; an accelerated frame, the Universe outside appears more massive than it actually is. If the Earth, as viewed from the orbit of Jupiter, could be gravitationally "weighed" it would appear more massive than it is compared to the Earth's own frame of reference. This is the relativistic effect of gravity and an accelerated frame of reference.

Conclusion

The probable consequences of this unification model were discussed earlier, they will be summarized again here for the sake of clarity:

1) The effect on space-time of strong gravity fields and velocities approaching c are indistinguishable. This unifies special and general relativity.

2) The gravitational fields of speedy objects shift forward toward their direction of motion. Observers in different reference frames might measure this effect on a fast moving and massive planet. This is the proposed inertia effect.

3) The increase in mass of objects approaching speed c is related to gravitation and gravitational mass. Inertial mass increases because of the principle of equivalence.

4) The apparent mass of a planet or star in a strong gravitational field increases. The amount of matter contained in a massive body cannot account for the measurable increase of gravitational and inertial effects of these objects.

5) Since fast objects contract in their direction of motion, massive planets with strong gravity may be actually larger than they appear. Massive stars are therefore Lorentz-Fitzgerald contracted.

6) Objects in uniform motion "feel" tidal forces as they approach speed c. Such objects may begin to stretch-out as light speed is approached. This takes place at the same time as they may Lorentz-Fitzgerald contract from a different frame of reference.

7) Black holes are objects that are Lorentz-Fitzgerald contracted to a point. See black hole text below.

8) For objects in uniform motion at high-velocity, the visual tunnel effect of blue-shifting light at the center of the visual field, is related to inertia. The void causes a shower of radiation to impact a body from behind--this causes the inertia effect; why objects don't change their state of motion without a implied force.

9) Rotational and uniform inertia may be different. Although both are accelerations, rotational inertia is described by Mach's principle, while uniform acceleration is better described by this model. Rotational inertia is absolute and relative to not only the fixed stars, but also to an object's gravitational field.

10) The kinetic energy of waves and particle spin may be related concepts. Einstein's E = mc^2 and 1 / 2 mv^2 associated with kinetic energy may be closely related as well as described in the text above. See also the "Electricity" text at the link below for a further and deeper discussion.