Electricity As Matter Wave Frequency Changes

This Text Is Somewhat Of An Update (In Late June, 2001) Of The Previous 1999 "Electricity And Magnetism" Text Seen At: http://www.johnkharms.com/eandm.htm . However, The Model Here Proposes An Entirely Different Hypothesis (Based More On Electric Currents And Their Physical Movements From One Body To Another) Than That Of The 1999 Text Which Is Concerned To A Greater Extent With Electric And Magnetic Fields. This Model Also Proposes (Based Upon Waves) New Rules For Matter And Energy Conversion -- E = mv^2 . The Unification proposal was added in August 2004. This Text Is Also Utilized As The Basis Of Sensory Stimulation In The Wave Picture Of The Senses Seen At: http://www.johnkharms.com/senses.htm The Sister Text To This Is: http://www.johnkharms.com/wave-magnet.htm

Are Electrons The Quanta Of Frequency?

The Facts Of Electricity In A Wave Context

New Matter To Energy Conversion Rules

E = mv^2

Kinetic Energy/ Mass--Energy Unification Proposal

Does 1/2 mv^2 Suggest Wavelike Matter, Particle Spin And Also Antimatter?

By: John K. Harms

Email: harmsjk3@earthlink.net

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Unification Update Added In August 2004

Abstract:

This text explores a new view of electricity, the idea that electricity and electric phenomena are completely wavelike. Instead of a particle-like electron, the electron is pictured by this text completely as a wave. An electron is viewed and defined, therefore, as a quantum of frequency. Hence, the electron carries frequency from one body to the other, in an attempt to balance out two widely separated matter wave frequency systems. Current is defined as the speed of the electron waves through a wire. Voltage can be understood to be a difference in the frequencies of two matter wave systems. Charge may, therefore, be a difference in the amplitudes of the two wave systems. In addition, resistance is pictured here as a reduction in the difference of the frequencies (or voltage) of the two matter wave systems. Resistance is, thus, related to heat, entropy and also to electromagnetic waves. Capacitance is also defined in terms of waves by this model. An explanation of the work function of metals, capacitors, batteries, resistors and inductors is also incorporated into the discussion in terms of this wave picture of electricity. Electrical grounding is also discussed. The mathematical symmetries of waves are also explored with some new thoughts about matter and energy conversions. A new interpretation of the equation E = mv^2 places limitations on matter to energy conversions. This is discussed also in the context of Planck's: E = hf, now extended to matter as well as antimatter systems. Electric forces are proposed to be transverse matter waves, while heat is viewed essentially as a longitudinal wave form. Heat is, thus, compared in this text with electrical forces. The probable consequences of this matter wave electrical model are discussed. The Unification of Matter / Energy with the common Kinetic Energy forces was added in August 2004 with a slight update at that time. In addition, 1/2 mv^2 may suggest a wavelike picture of matter, particle spin as well as antimatter.

Key Words: Electricity, Electron Waves, Frequency, Work Function, Alternating Current, Direct Current, Batteries, Fuel Cells, Power, Current, Voltage, Electrical Energy, Charge, Force, Capacitance, Capacitors, Resistors, Inductors, Diodes, Crystals, Matter/Energy Conversion, E = mv^2, E = hf, Electrical Grounding, Heat, Transverse, Longitudinal, Kinetic Energy, Unification, Antimatter, Particle Spin, Wavelike Matter

Introduction

It has been said that an easy way to visualize electricity is by imagining positive and negative point charges in a vacuum. Electricity and electrical currents, however, always exist only within matter. So, electricity itself might be considered strictly a characteristic of matter. Thus, both matter and electricity always must occur together. This is what is observed.

This texts takes seriously a different view of electricity, the idea that all matter is a wave i.e., electrons, as well as the more massive constituents of atoms, the atomic nuclei. This is the next step in the de Broglie wavelike picture of reality--electricity and electrical phenomena purely in terms of waves. In the usual quantum mechanical explanations in university textbooks, the author has never specifically seen a purely de Broglie wavelike description of electricity and/or other electric phenomena.

Electricity is a wave in the electric component of space which is then transferable via the quanta of frequency (electrons) from body to body. Since presently matter as "waves" appears not to be an orthodox viewpoint and, hence, given an equal treatment, the purely wave picture of electricity will be the gist of the explanation attempted here.

Toward the end of this text, somewhat different mathematical ideas about mass and energy conversions are discussed. They are worthy of note.

The Orthodox Picture Of Electricity

In the present picture, most aspects of electricity are viewed as the movement of electron particles. The generation of electricity, is described as the movement or flow of electrons through metal wires. This may take place (for example) when the wire is brought into motion with respect to nearby permanent magnets. In this view, the motion of the wire through the magnetic field can be understood to apply forces on the electron particles that exist within the metal wires.

The electrons, then, begin to flow in a particular direction in the wire. That specific direction depends upon the direction of the constant movement of the wire through the magnetic field. This was Michael Faraday's brilliant discovery in the 19th Century, the principle behind electromagnetic induction; essentially the electrical generation technology used in all present-day power facilities.

The author would now like to step back for a moment and offer the reader a completely different picture of electricity; a description based purely upon the interactions of matter waves with each other. The French physicist Louis de Broglie in-essence paved the way for this picture of reality. To follow, the author will now adopt a wavelike view of reality and take the de Broglie visualizations at face value.

In essence, the author proposes that our present "particle" based descriptions of electricity may be improved upon by offering an alternative picture in terms of the interactions of matter "waves" with each other.

Electricity As Matter Wave Vibrations

As mentioned above, electricity is usually viewed as the flow of electron particles, often through metal wires. When two different metals come into contact, there can be a flow of electrons from one body to the other. The conventional picture of this is a flow of electron particles from a metal with a lower work function to a metal with a higher overall work function. This flow of electrons from one metal to the other can continue until the work functions of both metals come into electrostatic equilibrium and, thus, may balance each other.

The work function is related the quantity of energy required to cause an electron to leave the surface of the metal. Each metal, hence, has its own distinct work function. So again, when two metals come into contact, the metal with the lesser work function may off-load its electrons (the electrons then flow) onto the other metal until an electrostatic equilibrium point is reached. This is the present viewpoint and this is believed to be the fundamental operating principle behind most all common batteries.

Now, the author would like to propose a completely different "matter wave" picture of the same events. Instead of differences in the work functions of each metal, let us simply assume that the two metals are in-essence matter "waves". Being of a differing atomic structure, the two metals must, therefore, have different chemical properties. They then (as waves) should also have different inherent resonant frequencies.

So, a difference in the work function (in the wave picture) is essentially a difference in the resonant frequency of the metal. Hence, when these two waves do come into contact, strictly in terms of wave vibrations, the two different frequencies would tend to merge into one collective frequency. Thus, the two different frequencies can, when they do come into contact, adopt a single collective wave frequency. How precisely does this take place?

Perhaps, the key to understanding the merging of two waves into this common frequency is by the transfer of electron waves from one matter wave to the other. Electron waves can, therefore, be understood as "the quanta of frequency". So, an electric current can flow between the two metals.

Hence, the local imbalances in the frequencies of one matter wave verses another are primarily corrected by the transfer of small quanta known as electrons; (in this picture) the minute quantized aspects of the waves associated with frequency. Electricity is, therefore, the flow of the quantized waves of frequency (electrons) passing from one body to another.

Therefore, one matter wave with a higher average frequency will give up small frequency quanta (electron waves) to a lower average frequency wave until an electrostatic equilibrium can be achieved. Both waves may now adopt a common and unified frequency. The merging of matter wave frequencies is, thus, how electric currents pass from body to body. Henceforth, a smaller work function equates to a metal with a higher average frequency! This is true in the case of batteries as well as in fuel cell technology, where again a current is generated by combining two substances (with two different average frequencies).

It should be noted that it is proposed within this text that heat may be essentially a longitudinal (or compressional) wave form, while electrical forces may be the same matter wave, but vibrating primarily as a transverse wave (up and down). This relationship between heat and electric forces is discussed subsequently in greater detail.

Power, Current, Voltage, Electrical Energy, Resistance And Charge

To describe electricity in a purely wave context requires a compliance with long established mathematical electrical relationships. For example:

1) Power = Current x Voltage, or: P = IV, where power is expressed in Watts.

Where the current (expressed in Amps) is high, the voltage (in Volts) must be low and vice versa (given a constant amount of electrical power). High voltage is used in long distance electrical wires because the resistance losses at high voltages in an alternating current system are vastly reduced. Nearer to your house, a transformer steps-down the high voltage, which increases the current for use in your home.

In the wave viewpoint, current must be equivalent to the speed of the electron waves passing through a metal. In high voltage systems, the speed of the electron wave is, therefore, reduced as voltage increases. In the present picture, the voltage is the electrical potential of the system or the amount of force on any given charge. In the wave picture, voltage may be the frequency difference of the waves from one end of the wire to the other.

In a battery where two metals come into contact, the voltage is the frequency difference between the two matter wave systems involved. Since these two metals may exist at different frequencies (and, thus, also have different work functions), the electrical potential or voltage is the difference between these two frequencies. As described earlier, a low work function equates to a high frequency (an inverse relationship), thus:

The Work Function (the quantity of energy required for an electron to escape a metal) Is Approximately Equal To: 1 / The Frequency Of The Matter Wave

Voltage can be understood in mathematical terms as: (f1 - f2) or the overall average frequency of the first matter wave (the frequency of material # 1) or f1, minus (since we are talking about the difference here) the average frequency of second matter wave f2. The sign of the answer (plus or minus) may determine the direction of the forces on the charges in the wire i.e., the direction of the current. A higher frequency matter wave will on average always generate an apparent force potential on a lower frequency wave.

So, with power held as a constant, when the voltage (the average difference in frequencies from one end of the wire to the other) is stepped up, the current (or the speed of the electron waves in the wire) are slowed. Vice versa (the opposite) can also take place in a transformer near to your house; the speed of the electron waves are increased, but the frequency difference (f1 - f2) across the wire is in this case reduced.

It should be noted as a momentary digression that in all wave systems that: Frequency x Wavelength = Speed (or in this discussion -- speed (or velocity) is the speed of the electron waves, the electrical current). Thus, if speed is held as a constant, a low frequency is equivalent to a long wavelength and vice versa.

This brings us to the next relationship:

2) Electrical Energy = Charge x Voltage, or: U = qV

Since above, voltage was defined as a difference in frequency (f1 - f2), we must now define "charge" in the wave picture. Charge can be understood to be analogous to the brightness of a light, related to the amount of energy (for example) stored in a battery. Six volt batteries used in small radios have a rather low average voltage, but a lot of charge stored in chemical form--they have a significant quantity of electrical energy stored in the form of charge.

So, charge is related to the amount of force on average the battery can generate. The force equation is given by:

3) Force = Charge (amplitude up or down) x Energy (as defined in # 2), or F = qE.

In the wave picture, charge must be (similar to the brightness in flashlight batteries) the amplitude of the accumulated electron waves themselves. Specifically, the average difference in the amplitudes of the waves of the two substances combined in the battery or fuel cell. Hence, we label the average amplitude of the first matter wave (with a higher average amplitude) substance as A1 (or the amplitude of electron wave # 1) and the second lower one as A2. From this, we see that (A1 - A2) is the average amount of charge (as amplitude) that a battery or fuel cell can store in chemical form. Hence, batteries (in the wave picture) store electron wave amplitude!

It can be understood that amplitude as charge can be a positive quantity (a positive charge) or a negative value (a negative charge). Amplitude can be related to the phase of the electron wave, either in-phase or out-of-phase. Two in-phase waves (amplitude pointed upward) may positively reinforce each other -- a positive charge (and a greater amplitude), whilst two precisely in-phase waves (pointed downward) may negatively reinforce each other -- a negative charge and amplitude. These are the characteristics of positrons (positive electron waves) and protons.

If one matter wave is precisely (180 degrees) out-of-phase with another there may be a cancellation -- a net neutralization of charge i.e., an amplitude of zero. Electron / positron annihilation can be understood in this manner. In the author's opinion, phase and wave amplitude are an interesting approach to the visualization of charge.

It is worthy of note that in this picture of charge, it is much easier to make sense out of the so-called "fractionally charged" particles, such as the particles known as quarks. Fractionally charged particles simply have a lower average amplitude.

In the particle picture, charge can be understood to be similar to particle spin, right verses left-handed and so on. Two right spins may be a positive charge, while two lefts may be negative. Hence, opposite spins may cancel each other and be essentially equivalent to a zero amplitude. These particle "spins" may be the spins of the constituent particles of matter. See the "Matter As Photon Holes" text at the link below for more information.

A wave in the electric field of space at one point on a wire fluctuates first up and then down. The charge at any one point, therefore, is positive and then is negative. However, at the end of the wire the negative (electron) wave fronts may be the only aspects of the wave we measure. Hence, we can measure the "electron" aspects of the wave, but not the "positron" (or positive) characteristics--why?

Although the positive "positron" aspects of the wave are always present as part of the wave in the electric field, the positive aspects of the wave may be traveling also in the opposite direction. Thus, the electron aspect may travel from A to B through the wire, but the positive "positron" aspects of the wave may travel from B to A at the same time.

It is as though the negative charge travels in a forward-in-time direction, whilst the positive charge travels backward-in-time through the wire. Indeed, this description is identical to the widely accepted view of electrons and positrons as being mirror image opposites--traveling in opposite directions of time. But, here we are speaking about the movement of matter waves in the electric field through wires--and not waves actualized as particles moving independently (and freely) in the vacuum.

If one has some trouble believing that this picture of the "electron" wave can be true, consider for a moment the common electrical diode. A diode is an electrical device that in essence divides up the electron wave to flow in one direction only. Since, as mentioned above, the electron wave consists of both electron and positive electron (positron) elements flowing in opposite directions through the wire, the diode splits up the wave so only an individual top or bottom wave component can pass through the diode. For example, the diode may only allow an individual "down" wave component that travels from A to B, but blocks the "up" component traveling in the opposite direction (from B to A).

If we return again to the discussion of charge, the aspect of space that we call charge (and that's actually what we are talking about here--a characteristic of space itself!) is for an electron "negative" in the forward-in-time direction and "positive" in the backward-in-time direction.

Or, viewed somewhat differently, the electron aspects of the wave traverse from the positive end of the wire to the negative (at a given speed -- the current), whilst the positrons do just the opposite, and in the opposite direction. Essentially, there are two processes taking place here at once! The author believes that this is one of the fundamental reasons that the direction of the flow of electricity can often be muddled and ambiguous. Again, the electrical diode provides some supporting evidence for this conception of the electron wave.

These electron waves that pass through the wire are the oscillations in the electric component of the field associated with space. For a proton, the opposite of this description above must also be true. Thus, a proton has the characteristic of charge we call "positive" in the forward-in-time direction and "negative" in the backward-in-time direction. A proton basically has a positive amplitude while an electron has a negative -- these can, thus, be understood to be time-reversed opposites. Since we appear to live in the forward-in-time direction, we must measure electrons to be a negative charge and protons to be positive. So, in our direction of time, we do not actualize very much antimatter. See the "Antimatter" text at the link below for more information.

Thus, if we wish to rewrite equation # 2 above in terms of waves, we find:

U = qV, or in wave terms: U = (A1 - A2) x (f1 - f2)

Or, stated in words; the average electrical energy of the system is approximately equal to the average difference in wave amplitudes of the two systems, multiplied by the average differences in the frequencies (in cycles per second) of the two matter wave systems. Amplitude is very affected by wave phase.

Now, let us open a discussion about resistance (expressed in Ohms). We can state the following mathematical relationship concerning resistance:

4) Voltage = Current x Resistance, or: V = IR

We have already defined voltage above as the average difference in frequency between two matter wave systems and current as the average speed of the electron wave down the wire, but what might resistance be in the wave picture?

In the wave viewpoint, resistance may be understood to be equivalent to an increase in f1 or a reduction in f2 as stated above (or some combination thereof). Hence, resistance in-essence is a "difference in frequency" (a voltage) that is reduced! Resistance, therefore, is not actually analogous to viscosity (the present picture), but is primarily a reduction in the (voltage) frequency (and, thus, also the energy i.e., see Planck's formula below) of the system.

It is noteworthy that although the result of resistance may be a reduction in the difference in frequency from f1 to f2, the cause of this reduction may be that the wave form produces excess vibration energy in the form of longitudinal (or compression) waves. As is described subsequently, this is the author's view of heat. Thus, resistance may be caused by an increase in the compression or longitudinal aspects of a matter wave. This energy loss to compression vibrations in the wire may arise out of the transverse aspects of the wave as it moves along. So, transverse electrical energy may be transformed into longitudinal movements of the matter wave in the form of heat and light.

Since an electric light or an electric heater is essentially a resister (both also being emitters of electromagnetic energy), Planck's formula for photon emission is Energy = h x frequency [ (E = hf) ; where h is Planck's constant]. This can be understood as lost frequency (through resistance) essentially being transformed into photon energy. Thus, a loss in frequency by a wire (resistance) becomes a loss in energy by the overall system and a gain in random longitudinal wave energy and photon energy emitted. This is the essence of the wave picture of resistance.

This reduction in frequency may be due to entropy (longitudinal waste energy) and result in an increase in the flatness of the wave with time. Indeed, resistance causes heating; a fundamental process also involving entropy (and flatness). Superconductivity, a reduction in resistance by the cooling down of the wires, can be understood as an increase in the frequency difference between f1 and f2. Perhaps, heat tends to increase on average the flatness of the waves by acquiring their energy, thus, making them closer to being uniform. So, extreme cooling reduces the tendency for flattening and uniformity. More about this subsequently.

It can, therefore, be concluded that resistance is an average loss of frequency (a generalized flattening) by the wave system, either by a gain in f1 or by a loss in f2 above (or some combination thereof).

The Wave Picture Of Resisters, Capacitors, Batteries, Amplifiers And Inductors

The wave view of resistance was given above. Therefore, a resister (which has a resistance) is a device that causes the traveling wave to lose its frequency (or equivalently ---a gain in its wavelength, at a given electron wave speed). This amounts to a loss in energy of the system (as given by Planck's formula above) and an average increase in entropy. As stated previously, the use of high voltages can in general minimize the losses. Perhaps, high voltages can reduce the random longitudinal motions of the matter waves, the energy lost in the wires as heat. Because entropy on average does not decrease, the average resistance losses can never be equal to zero.

In the wave picture, a capacitor is a device that may store electron wave amplitude. Charge may build up as an increase in the amplitudes of the electron waves that exist within the capacitor. This may occur when more electrons are accumulated in the capacitor. More electron waves in-phase are added. As mentioned above, an increase in amplitude is analogous to the brightness of a light--as a light gets brighter, its amplitude also increases by the addition of photons to the electromagnetic wave.

Indeed, within a capacitor, the more energy that may be stored, the greater is its capacity also to make an electric light brighter. Similarly, a battery may be viewed as a storehouse of electron wave amplitude as well. Thus, the more charge the battery (or fuel cell) has in chemical form, the more wave amplitude (or in the analogy, brightness) the electrons have within the battery. Hence, the addition of electron wave quanta to the battery simply add amplitude (and force) in-phase to the matter wave system of the battery.

It is notable that an increase in the current, the quantity of electron waves passing past a given point in the wire per second, also increases the rate at which a capacitor can fill to its capacity.

Capacitance can be derived from the following mathematical relationship:

5) Charge = Capacitance x Voltage, or q = CV

Through Mathematical (Algebraic) Manipulation We Derive:

Capacitance = Charge / Voltage, or C = q / V

By The Substitution Of The Charge And Voltage Definitions Above We Derive:

Capacitance = (A1 - A2) / (f1 - f2)

So, this relationship becomes the wave definition of capacitance; the difference in the amplitudes of two matter waves divided by the difference in their frequencies. Capacitance only applies to alternating current.

An amplifier is a device that can add amplitude to an electrical signal. In the traditional amplifier, electron waves are "boiled off" of a cathode and pass through a wire grid, and accelerated to the positive end of the tube. The electron waves amplitudes can be increased when the waves are accelerated (via kinetic energy). Thus, the signal can be amplified. So, the grid essentially adds additional electrical energy and amplitude (analogous to brightness) to the waves passing through it. At present, we now have somewhat higher technology devices that function by the same principles.

An inductor is a coil of wire that can create a magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic field is proportional to the speed of the electron waves passing by--the current. The speed of waves create magnetic fields because the electron waves are not only in the wires themselves, but they also affect the space around the wires. These are seen as lines of magnetic force surrounding the wires.

To the author, this is further evidence that the electrons are not merely particles flowing through the wires, but in essence are waves that have some actual existence outside the wires as well! The wires may, thus, aid in guiding the electron waves along their paths in space, but the space itself surrounding the wires is also affected as the wave travels along.

(Added: 09-09-2003) As a demonstration of this reality, consider two electric telephone lines very close together. When two phone lines both of which carry current along (and electronic conversations) reach roughly a line length of twenty feet or more, the phenomenon of "cross talk" often may take place. Cross talk is where a resonance takes place between the two wires and one can even faintly hear the other conversations happening on your own line. Essentially, the length of the wire matters because this may determine the wavelengths of the electron flow through the and around the wires. However, that cross talk exists at all demonstrates that considerable activity going on outside the wires as well. Hence, for practical engineering purposes two telephone wires placed side by side are almost always limited to less than twenty feet in length. And so, we might understand from this that electricity is a matter wave phenomenon and is only roughly guided along in its path by the wires themselves and that considerable electric-wave activity takes place in the space surrounding the wires.

Since shaking an electron can create an electromagnetic disturbance of space, it is, therefore, not surprising that the reverse is also true i.e., that electromagnetic fields in space force electron waves to traverse through metal wires.

When the wire is in the form of a coil, the lines of force may resemble an ordinary bar magnet with a North and a South pole. This is known as a dipole field. Ampere's theory that all magnetism is actually electricity in motion i.e., electrodynamics, may (in the author's opinion) be true.

The author believes that it may indeed be possible for there to be a constant imbalance in each metal itself. That is, each metal that contains magnetic properties, may have essentially two different frequencies of internal vibrations within it. This may or may not be related to the metal (matter wave) itself interacting with background radiation (electromagnetic waves). This is, however, simply the author's working hypothesis at this point.

These wave imbalances may cause a flow of frequency quanta (electrons) in a circle around the metal matter wave, which in essence creates the dipole field around the metal. Heating may often disrupt these internal wave imbalances and can often nullify the imbalance and magnetic effect.

Alternating Current Verses Direct Current

In general, what the author has been describing here (except in the cases of capacitance and power generation systems) are direct current (DC) systems. Yes, DC exists as electron waves passing through wires. That is the proposal here.

But, on the other hand, in alternating current (AC) systems, there is yet another type of wave phenomenon taking place. That is, not only is there an electron wave passing through each individual wire, but the direction of that wave through the two wires in each circuit is also oscillating back and forth--first forward and then backward. So, at some point in each cycle of oscillation the current must stop, arrive at the zero point and then reverse itself. Therefore, there is a different (and additional) type of frequency taking place here.

The author will now attempt to describe this process in AC systems based upon this model with words: If we assume that there are two wires side by side, label them # 1 and # 2 that stretch primarily in two directions "A" at one end and "B" at the other end. When the electron wave (perhaps, from AC power generation) is traveling down wire # 1 in the forward direction (A to B), the electron aspect of the wave is in the forward-in-time mode. The positive electron aspects, however, are simultaneously traveling backward-in-time from B to A. These are the two aspects that form the electron wave.

But, when the current slows to a stop and reverses itself, the current is now traveling down wire # 2. Now, however, the positron backward-in-time aspects of the wave, which were previously heading in the backward direction, are now heading in the forward direction down wire # 2. Hence, the forward-in-time electron aspects of the wave in # 1, are now going backward in # 2. There is a kind of swapping of the time direction occurring here. Alternating current, therefore, may be pictured to a large degree as time itself changing its direction.

One might picture this also as a positron changing into an electron and an electron becoming a positron. This is the essence of (the author's views on) wave fluctuations. It can be understood, therefore, that at any one point on the wave; when the wave is in an "up" fluctuation, it is (for example) an electron, but when it again fluctuates to a "down" position, it is now a positive electron or positron.

Hopefully, this description using words was somewhat clear and understandable. It is rather a complex conception, and words may not do it justice. See the "Space-Grid" text at the link below for further information about these conceptions.

A final observation while we are on the topic of waves. The frequency of a resonant circuit is given by: [2 pi x sq root of (LC)] where "L" is the inductance and "C" is the capacitance. Note that "pi" relates only to circles, but where are the circles in L or C? It could be because inductors have round coils, except that this equation applies to square coils as well. So, this explanation must not be correct (Feynman, 1999).

The author's idea is that if you look at any wave from the side, for example, waves in the water, points on the wave move up and down move in complete circles as the wave oscillates. Thus, if you place small floating balls on the surface of the water, as the wave moves up and down, the balls will tend to move in a circle.

Moreover, the sizes of the circles appear to depend not only on the size of the waves, but also upon the depth of the water in which they are placed. So, all elements of the wave "medium" are in essence moving in circles. Therefore, the fact that "pi" is present in an equation for resonant circuits might be explained, if the wave picture proposed in this text is taken at face value.

The Photoelectric Effect

It should be noted that imbalances in frequency may result from matter to matter systems or also from radiation to matter systems. An example of this is the so-called photoelectric effect. In the photoelectric effect, light is shown on a metal and depending upon the photon energy of the light (hence, it's frequency), it causes electrons to bound off the surface of the metal. Thus, the metal may become charged when electron waves are ejected from the metal of a minimum frequency and energy. This is commonplace in photo-voltaic solar cell technology.

This is generally explained (and was by Albert Einstein in 1905) as the work function of the metal being overcome by the high energy of the photons. However, we have seen that this can also be understood as a wide enough difference between the matter wave frequencies of the metal and that of the waves of light. If the frequency difference here (between light and matter) is widely separated enough, electron waves will be ejected from the metal and, thus, flow outward (as in the case of two material metals in a battery as well). The photons transfer frequency back to the electron and it can escape the metal. Indeed, this is precisely what takes place in the photoelectric effect experiment, an experiment that is suppose to prove that light is a particle.

Let me state here that the author believes in the reality of photons and is not attempting in this text to prove otherwise. But, from the author's standpoint, photons are "real" on the basis of Planck's work alone (and based upon the ultraviolet catastrophe) and not based upon the photoelectric effect experiment by itself. Thus, if this text is correct, this proposal may demonstrate that there are other "wave" explanations of the photoelectric effect (that were not previously considered). Moreover, there are other Compton-type scattering experiments that the author finds even more convincing than the photoelectric effect concerning the reality of photons.

Related Topics

The Earth has a very low frequency (long-wavelength) of resonance--now close to 7.8 Hertz, but is said to be slowly rising. The Earth, therefore, makes a very good electrical ground. Since the grounding of the Earth (and precisely why it works) has always been somewhat of a mystery, perhaps, this text offers at least a partial explanation. The Earth is a good ground because of its very low matter wave frequency (f1)!!

If there is a resistance (such as putting the ground in the wrong place in the Earth), the frequency of the Earth will be altered. Voltage = Current x Resistance. So, proper placement of the ground is essential to avoid resistance. Grounding other bodies (for example, cars, airplanes or spacecraft) will work if they also have rather low matter wave frequencies.

Thus, lightening may be the difference in the frequency between the Earth and a very energetic high frequency cloud. Moisture in the form of rain may act as an electrolyte conductor as in a common battery, that might aid the in-phase electron waves in their passage from cloud to the ground or from cloud to cloud. Cloud to cloud lightening might be a somewhat different effect than cloud to ground lightening; cloud to cloud may be a positive amplitude (charge) jumping as a spark to a negative one.

Since electricity in this viewpoint is related to a difference in the matter wave frequencies of bodies in the Universe; precisely how do bodies accomplish this?

Some of the ways that bodies may change their frequencies is by:

1) The flow of electrons from one body to another.

2) Adding energy of any kind to the matter wave.

3) Physical rubbing (friction) and heating--energy.

4) Shining light on the substance--light energy.

5) Charging by induction.

6) Oxidation of a metal--as in the lead in a lead-acid battery in your car--electrical energy.

7) It is noteworthy that matter with loosely bound electrons are more susceptible to changing their frequencies.

Electricity is the Universe's attempt to bring into uniformity the frequencies and wavelengths of its matter waves. This can be seen also in the increase of wave flatness (matter and/or radiation) and entropy. Hence, the function of electrons is to bring a uniformity to the waves of matter in the Cosmos.

We, therefore, may be approaching a kind of "heat death" of electricity, the uniformity of all charge in the Universe. Thusly, A Positive Charge + A Negative Charge = 0. This may occur because waves tend to spread out and dampen as they move along--entropy tends to increase. Order (as seen in other texts) can be understood to be the degree of wave amplitude.

The Universe is bound together by the force of electricity. Electrons that travel down a wire are essentially forced to do so by an electromagnetic wave. However, in matter wave systems there is a compliance by the electron waves with the Higgs mechanism (which the author believes must be related to the frequencies and/or the wave phases of matter). Electricity (DC) is, in particular, a flow down a wire of the quanta of frequency by a disturbance of the electrical aspects of space, while the residual magnetic aspects of the wave surround the wire itself. Hence, electricity is also a movement of mass and inertia at below the speed of light down a wire to your home.

Heat And Electricity

As mentioned previously, what we call heat may be understood to be a longitudinal (or compression; back and forth) vibration of a matter wave, whilst electricity in essence is a transverse wave of space vibrating up and down. The question arise; does one have a significant effect upon the other? Yes indeed!

In fact, change in heat vibrations (energy) must have an effect upon the frequency of the matter i.e., its electrical potential. Recall that if one heats a permanent bar magnet, the metal bar may lose its electrical currents within and, thus, its magnetic properties. As mentioned previously, the resistance in a wire can generate heat and light (which in this picture may be the longitudinal motions and, therefore, are wasted movements of the wave).

Indeed, super-cooling can reduce the resistance in a wire, which may be an average reduction in the longitudinal movements of the matter wave. Moreover, electrical sparks may ignite a fire. Hence, heat and electricity must be related. Therefore, these closely interconnected effects of both heat and electricity may all be related to the relationships of the random longitudinal heat effects of a matter wave with its transverse electrical characteristics.

It is also notable that when one places a battery in a refrigerator that the batteries may last longer. Why? This is because the amplitudes of the waves in both metals can be generally dampened, so fewer electrons will flow between them. Through cooling, the relationship between heat (which are simply vibrations) with matter wave vibration can be understood. Thus, there is a close connection between heat and electrical charge. Cooling, therefore, reduces through dampening the overall energy of a matter wave. This is further evidence that this picture of wave-electricity lies on the correct path.

It, therefore, has been said that heat is the enemy of the battery. Cell phone batteries left in hot cars lead very short lives (and refrigerated batteries last the longest). If electrical currents that flow in batteries are not due to the differences in the frequencies of each metal, why then does heat (random vibratory motions in the metals) destroy the differences in the charges of each metal in a battery? So, heat as the destroyer of battery life is not explained well by the conventional "work function" picture of the battery, but (the author believes) is better explained by the frequency approach to electrical charges. Thusly, the evidence provided by batteries adds weight to this point of view.

The Mathematical Symmetries Of Particles And Waves--Mass / Energy Conversions

We can now connect this conception with the work of Louis de Broglie:

First, we state the de Broglie equation (# 1); mass x velocity [or momentum (p) ] = h / wavelength, or mv = h / w

So, by algebraic manipulation we see that: mv / h = 1 / w

By inverting the entire equation we derive (# 2): w = h / mv

If one adds a second (common -- and mentioned above) equation concerning all waves (# 3): wavelength x frequency = speed (or velocity) i.e., w x f = v

We may then isolate wavelength (w) in equation # 3 above to read (equation # 4): w = v / f and insert this result into equation # 2 above to read:

v / f = h / mv

By inverting both sides of the equation we get: f / v = mv / h

Solving for f we derive: f = (mv x v) / h or f = mv^2 / h

Hence, in the equations for waves above where a voltage is involved (a difference in frequencies), we can substitute in: mv^2 / h for this value wherever it appears.

For example, a voltage between two bodies may be approximately: (mv^2 / h) - (mv^2 / h). Thus, the mass times the velocity squared divided by Planck's constant of the first matter wave minus these same values of the second material wave involved may, thus, approximate the quantity of voltage between the two waves -- mv^2 is, therefore, the frequency and energy. In the equations above where a voltage is used, the value mv^2 / h may be substituted in as an approximation. Hence, this is the particle approach to this model.

To demonstrate that this model is mathematically symmetrical; mv^2 can be understood to be the energy (E) of the matter wave. So, as above, E / h is its equivalent to the frequency--or f = E / h. If we then solve for energy we derive: E = hf or Max Planck's well-known energy formula for blackbody radiation.

In a short digression for a moment to make a point concerning Planck's equation; in the "Wave-Reality" text, it can be understood in the formula E = hf above, that ( E ) is the particle energy of the matter wave and ( f ) is its frequency. ( h ) is Planck's constant which may be the angular momentum of the particle constituent of the wave system. In ordinary matter systems, this may be the angular momentum of a photon hole, a negative value. So, in ordinary matter systems the equation actually may read: - E = - hf (equivalent to E = hf). See the "Matter As Photon Holes" text for more about photon holes as matter constituents at the link below.

However, in antimatter systems, the energy and angular momentum are positive, so E = hf must be the actual case. Thus, antimatter systems utilize ordinary photons as the particle constituents. It is surprising (but true as de Broglie discovered) that E = hf in either form demonstrates an important relationship between the particle and the wave aspects of matter. In the author's opinion, this has not generally been appreciated.

Therefore, the author believes that E = hf does not simply apply to radiation alone, but also (and in a symmetrical fashion) to matter as well as antimatter systems. This in essence amounts to a unification of matter with radiation and/or a widening of the usage of Planck's revolutionary quantum formula. The deeper one probes, the more one can see in Max Planck's work!

So, to return to our previous discussion; in matter wave terminology, E = mv^2 must, therefore, be the energy of the wave--its frequency. For Einsteinian matter to energy conversion, however, the velocity of the wave must be equal (or close to) the speed of light, so E = mv^2 becomes E = mc^2 as v approaches c.

We can then understand that E = mc^2 simply does not apply in all situations! In the conversion of radiation to matter, Einstein's equation always applies because light waves all travel at c i.e., E = mc^2. But, in the case of a piece of matter converting its energy to radiation, the energy released in this conversion may depend upon the velocity approaching c of the matter wave in question i.e., E = mv^2.

Hence, if the matter is in a highly accelerated state close to c (as in atomic explosions), there may be little or no difference between v and c. This is also the common experimental setup in a particle accelerator where v is very close to c and physicists then measure the energy produced by an matter/antimatter interaction.

However, in the case of a relatively slow moving piece of matter (such as the Earth itself, for example) compared to that of c, this difference may indeed be significant. If, as described above, a piece of matter annihilates a piece of antimatter, the quantity of energy produced may depend upon the energy states of the equal but opposite matter waves with each other -- and this energy state may depend also upon velocity.

In support of the author's reasoning, E =mv^2 has long been understood to be a universal component for energy exchange. For example, when a car skids to a halt, it is the velocity^2 x its mass that yields the total kinetic energy. In addition, a spherical weight dropped into clay sinks to a depth in the clay as the square of its velocity--twice as fast equates to four times as deep; three times as fast measures nine times as deep and so on. This was discovered by the Dutch researcher Willem 'sGravesande. (Bodanis, 2000).

This proposal above, therefore, places some limits (or restrictions) upon the use of Einstein's famous formula.

The Unification Of The Kinetic Energy Equation With The Einsteinian Mass / Energy Formula --- This Section Added August 2004

"Well, one might ask, if E = mv^2 does apply at energies less than c, then why is the kinetic energy (energy of motion) of a moving body actually equal to: K. E. = 1 / 2mv^2? Indeed, where does the 1 / 2 disappear to in the kinetic energy equation? If this difference could be explained in some way, could there be a Unification of below c energy (such as the kinetic energy of a massive moving below c) with that energy which is massless (at least at rest, such as photons of light) traveling at c?

In other words, can there be a Unification of mass / energy conversion rules and all other forms of below c kinetic energy? What might the essential link be in this case? Can the two equations be shown to be unified -- if only conceptually in this forum. The author believes yes.

So, if we assume that E = mc^2 and KE = 1 / 2mv^2 are actually equivalent statements, how can this be the case? Well, if as stated above, v is a "below the speed of light" case of c, what might be the difference between these two cases in the real World? Firstly, only massive bodies can travel at v, while massless photons (with zero rest mass) are only allowed to travel at c. So, might the difference here seems to be about mass verses masslessness? Therefore, if so, might the other main difference between the two equations, the unitless fraction 1 / 2, actually be about the difference between photons and matter? The author suspects so.

That is, the fraction 1 / 2 (which the other key difference between the kinetic energy formula and Einstein's), the author proposes is essentially the well known spin of all matter particles (spin 1 / 2) verses the spin of all force carrying particles (0, 1, or 2). Yes, the force carrying particles in particle physics such as the photon carry what is called integer spin. And so, the photon (a force carrying particle) is believed to carry spin 1.

Indeed, if the authors assertion is correct, then the kinetic energy formula actually reveals something important about the spin of a "below the speed of light" matter particle. All matter travels below the speed of light. So, the kinetic energy formula suggests (and in turn predicts) that all matter particles have spin 1 / 2, which they in fact all do! This conclusion may be a bit surprising since the kinetic energy formula does not actually tell us much at all about the particles themselves, but, perhaps, it really does in fact (if understood correctly) grant us this vital information!

Might it be the case that not only the equations of the great physicist Paul Dirac, but also the well known and essentially-simple classical kinetic energy equation tells us information about particle spin, in particular that of below the speed of light matter particles? Most certainly kinetic energy can only be about matter, which must in turn exclusively be particles i.e., atomic theory. For this author, the proposed Unification in this text does not seem to be out of the question.

Therefore, could it be that a classical physics equation might be telling us (and has been telling us for a long time) something important about the World of the quantum? In this proposal, the author believes so.

Wavelike Matter, Particle Spin, Antimatter And 1 / 2mv^2

The 1 / 2 particle spin picture of matter also suggests a somewhat different view of the 1 / 2 involving matter as waves. That is, the 1 / 2 may also be telling us that matter (which always operates below the speed of light) is wavelike in nature. In this view, the particle spin picture may be equivalent to a mishmash of matter waves traveling 1 / 2 the time upward and 1 / 2 the time downward. This behavior is common to all waves at any one point on the wave. Hence, Wave Upward + Wave Downward = 0.

Indeed, all waves, including a matter wave, must behave in this fashion. So, what we are calling mass in the 1 / 2mv^2 formula is actually only (on average) one half the time contributing its mass toward its forward energy of motion (or its kinetic energy). Therefore, the fact that the 1 / 2 exists in front of the mass in the equation would not be surprising if matter were essentially wavelike, which remains the author's picture of matter.

And so, in the classical picture of kinetic energy we see, not only that the World is by nature quantum, but also that the wavelike picture of matter can be strongly suggested. Furthermore, these two concepts suggest a close connection between particle spin and wavelike behavior. The fraction 1 / 2 suggests just such an intimate connection.

What is also suggested is that all matter has a secondary half, an antimatter partner to complete the picture i.e., 1 / 2 + 1 / 2 = 1, or antimatter + matter = a single "m". That is to say that 1 / 2mv^2 suggests that matter also has a mirror-imaged partner to arrive at a single m in the equation. This completes a somewhat mathematical Unification, a united description of the two equations as described above.

Since all matter does in fact have an antimatter partner, the 1 / 2mv^2 equation for kinetic energy becomes in essence only mv^2 when antimatter partners are included. Thus, while photons of light which travel at c don't have antimatter partners (the author has proposed "photon holes" as these partners in other texts), particles of matter do. So, E = mv^2 in essence provides Unification, once the equation can be more deeply understood. Therefore, these may be the points of most importance! See the "Antimatter" text at the link below for more about the antimatter--kinetic energy connection. Also note the author's ideas on photon holes contained throughout various other works.

And so, symmetrically speaking, one cannot actually talk about matter in the 1 / 2mv^2 equation, without also including its mirror-image (antimatter), created in a symmetrical fashion at the beginning of the Universe! One can see that matter + antimatter = 0, both perhaps created out of nothing in the Big Bang event. In this equation (M + A = 0), the matter and antimatter aspects may apply most likely to spin (although electrical charge may also be a possibility), which both are precisely opposite values (but surprisingly, precisely "1 / 2" in the case of spin). This fact might not be coincidental, but (perhaps) a hidden prediction made by the classical kinetic energy equation. Thus, a classical equation may have something to say about particle spin ---- Wow!

Whilst "1 / 2m" probably applies exclusively to "mass", both of which are positive values for matter as well as in an antimatter particle i.e., so, 1 / 2 + 1 / 2 = 1. Therefore, some logical sense can be made out of both of these equations, if they do happen to apply to the different characteristics of matter compared with antimatter. So, while the charge and spin of matter and antimatter are measured to be exactly opposite, the masses are found to be both positive values --- why not also a negative mass in antimatter remains a mystery, at least from this author's perspective."

Conclusion

This wave model of electricity leads to the following probable consequences:

1) Electrons are the quanta of frequency. Additional electrons in-phase add amplitude.

2) Current is the speed of the electron waves through a wire.

3) Voltage is the difference in frequencies between the two matter waves or from one end of a wire to the other.

4) Charge is the difference in amplitudes of the two matter waves, either positive or negative.

5) Resistance is a reduction in the difference in frequency between two matter waves. Resistance may cause heating and is, therefore, related to entropy and wave flatness.

6) Heat may be the longitudinal aspects of a matter wave, whilst electrical characteristics may be the transverse wave qualities. Resistance may be a transfer of transverse energy in a wire to random longitudinal energy (heat). Heat may increase the energy of a matter wave.

7) The Earth is a good ground because of its low matter wave frequency. Resistance can reduce the effectiveness of the grounding.

8) Waves of charge oscillate forward and backward-in-time. These may be waves in the electric field associated with space. In the case of electrons, we measure the negative aspects of the wave; in the case of protons, the positive. Waves in or out-of-phase and/or particle spins can describe positive or negative charges in unique ways. See the discussions above for further details.

9) Matter conversion to energy may depend upon the speed (relative to c) of the matter. In the case of radiation converting to matter, E = mc^2 always applies. However, when matter does convert to energy, E = mv^2 may be the general rule. So, the velocity (or kinetic energy) of the matter wave may determine its energy, hence, the value of v.

10) The classical kinetic energy equation predicts that matter particles may have spin 1 / 2. That may be the link of the classical World with that of the quantum. Also, the 1 / 2 suggests a wave picture of matter as well as an antimatter partner for all matter. See the discussion above in the last two sections prior to the conclusions.

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank Robert L. "Bob" Rhoades for sharing the finer points of his knowledge of electricity with me. His useful comments led to many improvements in the ideas presented within this text. I also wish to thank the scientist Dr. Andy Walker for his key questions concerning kinetic energy Unification. Its strange how key questions such as his can open up new pathways of exploration--his did! Much thanks to Dr. Walker.

Relevant Links

Wave-Magnetism: http://www.johnkharms.com/wave-magnet.htm

Electricity And Magnetism: http://www.johnkharms.com/eandm.htm

The Space-Grid: http://www.johnkharms.com/grid.htm

Matter As Photon Holes: http://www.johnkharms.com/matter.htm

Antimatter: http://www.johnkharms.com/antimatter.htm

Wave-Reality: http://www.johnkharms.com/wave-reality.htm

Photon Emission: http://www.johnkharms.com/photon.htm

The Brain As A Matter Wave System: http://www.johnkharms.com/wave-brain.htm

The Senses As Wavelike Systems: http://www.johnkharms.com/senses.htm

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References

Bodanis, D., 2000, E =mc^2, A Biography Of The World's Most Famous Equation, Walker & Company, New York, P. 65

Feynman, R. P., 1999, The Pleasure Of Finding Things Out, Perseus Books, Cambridge, Massachusetts, P. 177

Goodstein, D. L., 1987, The Mechanical Universe...And Beyond, Video Presentation; The Annenberg / CPB Collection, Burlington, VT, Programs: 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33

Reader's Note: Proper References And/Or Acknowledgments To This Text Are Appreciated.