space

There Are Three Platforms Designated By The Author For His Work On "Quantum Space". This Text Is The First Effort, A Somewhat Deeper Explanation Of The Basic Concept. A Subsequent Text, The Oscillating Universe, Is A Closed Description Of The Universe, At: http://www.johnkharms.com/oscillation.htm . Thirdly, A Conception Of Gravity Based Upon Quantum Space: http://www.johnkharms.com/GTR.htm . Matter As Photon Holes Can Be Viewed At: http://www.johnkharms.com/matter.htm . Another Important Text Is Photon Holes As Neutrinos At: http://www.johnkharms.com/neutrino-holes.htm .

Space--A Quantum System

The Subtraction Of Photon "Holes" By The Emission Of Photons And The Stretching Of Space

The Quantum Vacuum And The Quantum Foam Grid

What Is Dark Matter And Dark Energy?

David Bohm's Universe And Quantum Space

Quantum Mechanical Boundaries And The Physical Size Of Space

By: John K. Harms

Email: harmsjk3@earthlink.net

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Updated: July, 2003

Further Updated: March, 2004

Abstract:

The text proposes that space is a quantum system, as proven so by Zeno's paradox. The quanta of space are essentially photon holes, the absence of the photons of quantum vacuum radiation. It is proposed that photon emission subtracts energy from the quantum vacuum resulting in the fabrication of new space quanta. These subtractions are photon holes produced by galaxies at the Planck energy and are dark matter. Photon hole particles mix with ordinary vacuum radiation forming a quantum foam, a grid-like structure held in-place by electromagnetic forces. This is the author's view of space. Hence, space itself has its own weight. When this grid is stretched beyond its cohesive limits, new matter such as galaxies may be created--holes in the space fabric that are in-essence matter. Galaxies, the glowing sources of radiation in our Universe (and because photon emission creates photon holes), may also be the sources of new space (and dark matter) in the Universe. The repulsive effect of the creation of this new space in the Universe may drive the increasing expansion of the Cosmos--the dark energy effect. This may explain the current positive Cosmological Constant. The author's ideas concerning the quantum vacuum are explored; that the quantum vacuum can spontaneously fabricate new space. The connection between space and time is also examined. The Bohmian Universe with space as parts of an integral whole might be visualized by this picture of space. So, each photon hole is in an essential way an abstracted part of the larger space in the Universe. The unification of the very large with the very small (the dream of physics) can be understood by assuming that these photon holes have a physical size. These holes can be understood to be wormhole like structures that are inner-connected in a higher four dimensional space. That is, all particles, if they are small enough may pass through this photon hole (or wormhole space foam) space yielding in the end quantum mechanical weirdness i.e., only a statistical description of events at the quantum mechanical level. The probable consequences of these proposals and this picture of space are discussed.

Key Words: Quantum Space, Space Grid, Photon Holes, Quantum Space Foam, Zeno's Paradox, Quantum Vacuum, Dark Matter, Dark Energy, Photon Emission, Photon Absorption, Cosmological Constant, Gravity, Time, David Bohm

Introduction

What is space? Einstein pictured space like a rubber sheet that could expand without limit. In the quantum picture of the Universe, what is space really? How then can space have a density?

The author has pondered this question for a considerable time and has concluded that:

1) Space is quantum and, therefore, grainy and discontinuous.

2) Space quanta are actually photon "holes", the absence of photons acquired from quantum vacuum radiation mixed with radiation. The author calls this space foam. Space is a bit like tiny wormholes.

Space itself becomes churned into a lather of distorted geometry's, composed of photon holes combined with ordinary vacuum quanta. Electromagnetic forces essentially hold this quantum foam together. The foam or grid-like structure is composed of photon holes linked to each other by electromagnetic forces. When this grid is brought into a vibration by a charged particle, electromagnetic waves are produced; the quanta of which are photons.

The overall uniformity of these photon holes across the huge distances in the cosmos leads to an overall repulsive effect, particularly between the galaxies. Between the galaxies, the vibrations of the grid (the quanta of which are called photons) tend to dominate over gravity; localized compression's of the grid by an accumulation of photon holes near matter.

This may have happened as the Universe expanded. As the galaxies moved farther apart, the uniformity of the negative background (of negative-energy photon holes) became increasingly more uniform. Farther from massive bodies, the effects of gravity on the grid became less. This had the effect of kicking the Cosmos into overdrive (an acceleration) because gravitational sources were no longer compressing local space.

Henceforth, any irregularities (which can be understood to be forces) in the configurations of photon holes tended to be evened-out as the Universe expanded. Thusly, between the galaxies, photons (or the waves in the space-grid) became dominant over the now more uniform photon holes and generate a repulsion, whereas in gravitational fields photon holes become dominant creating an overall increase in curvature. See the "GTR" text at the link below for more about this subject.

The galaxies, as will be explored, may primarily be the sources of the fabrication of new space quanta; discontinuous particles that result from the emission of ordinary photons. Space can also be fabricated in the turbulent environments near galaxies by the quantum vacuum. Subtractions from the quantum vacuum (photon holes) caused by photon emission may be how galaxies fabricate dark matter. Dark matter as photon holes (a component of the space foam) may inherently be "built-into" the space foam mix.

Space in this text is related to the author's view of time in this sense: motion in space influences one's metabolic rate which in-turn effects time. Hence, time, which is (in the author's view) an internally-generated entity and space (which is exclusively "external") may be joined by assuming that motion through space has a personal effect upon the internally-determined time. See the "Time" link below for further details about time and metabolic rate.

Why Space Must Be A Quantum System

The ancient Greek thinker Zeno proposed an insightful (and utterly puzzling!) paradox that demonstrates that space must unavoidably be a quantum system. While Zeno's Paradox (as it is called) was merely a puzzle in its day, the idea actually strikes right at the heart of relativity and quantum thinking more than 2000 years later. Below is a short description:

To set the problem: An male athlete runs a race of 100 meters; how is he to cross the finish line at the far end? For him to get there, he will first need to pass the halfway point of 50 meters. Once he has arrived at the 50 meter mark, he will still have an equal distance to run; yet to complete the last 50 meters he must first pass the 75-meter point.

Wherever he is, however far from or close to the finish line, the athlete has a remaining distance to travel which he cannot complete before he has first run half the distance. As we keep dividing the remaining distances in two, he will get closer and closer to the finish without ever reaching it! Hence, our athlete will never finish the race (Waugh, 1999). This is known as Zeno's paradox.

It must be said that this is not some sort of trick either with words or with mathematical reasoning (or some combination thereof); it essentially means that space must be a quantum system. This paradox is a paradox only if space is a continuous system--which is assumed to be true by most people.

If the athlete succeeds in reaching the finish line, it must be that at some stage he reaches a point so close to the end line that the remaining distance between he and the finish is so minute that it cannot be divided any further--so he crosses the finish line (Waugh, 1999). Common sense, therefore, is saved by quantum space! Zeno's paradox is resolved.

It should be mentioned that this has relevance for time as well. See the "Time" text for further details. Link provided below.

What Is The Space-Grid?

This section is very short--A generalized definition and an image.

The space-grid in the image above is shown as a grid-like (foam-like) structure of connected photon holes. The greatly-enlarged image above shows only two cells of the grid. The space grid normally would be composed of an infinite (or very great) number of such cells and this is what we think of as space. Photon holes should normally (on their own) collapse inward to a point, however, the vibrations of the grid itself (electromagnetic waves) cause an outward force on the grid, tending to push-apart each photon hole away from every other hole on the grid.

In 1967, the Russian astrophysicist Yakov B. Zeldovich demonstrated that vacuum energy has an intriguing property. The energy associated with "nothingness" has a negative pressure (Cowen, 2001). The only reasonable model, therefore, is that the vacuum of space either is a negative energy void or is composed of particles that have this property. Thusly, it is proposed that space may be a composite structure (or grid) of photon "holes".

The grid above, therefore, has a negative pressure and energy and can resist stretching. It can be thought of as similar to Einstein's rubber-sheet analogy. So, the holes do not want to be drawn apart; there is a inherent negative pressure force that pulls them together. Hence, space itself has a built-in springiness or elasticity (Cowen, 2001).

When vibrations of the grid outward precisely balance with the negative inward pressure, there are no forces present. Gravity takes place when the photon holes accumulate (and compress) around matter and locally outnumber the vibrations (and photons) thereby contracting the local space.

As mentioned previously, far from gravitational fields, there may be a decreased density (relatively speaking) of photon holes in the grid compared to the vibratory photons. Henceforth, far from gravitational fields between the galaxies, space tends to expand and accelerate. This is the role (and the process) of the so-called "dark energy".

In the closely-related oscillating Universe proposal, the Cosmos may be controlled by the Cosmological constant. As shown in the image above, it can be understood that the origins of the Cosmological constant exist even in the absence of matter or radiation; in the fabric of empty space itself (Cowen, 2001). See the "Oscillating Universe" text for more details at the link below.

Photon Emission--The Creation Of Space Proposal

It is proposed here that space not only is a quantum system (as described above), but that new space is constantly being fabricated whenever photons are emitted.

As described in the "Photon Emission" text and that experiments also appear to verify, quantum vacuum energy in the form of virtual photons have an effect upon photon emission. It is the author's working hypothesis that virtual photons become ordinary photons by the interaction of the quantum vacuum with an excited charged particle (such as an electron). When the space-grid is brought into oscillation by a charged particle, electromagnetic waves (the grid itself oscillates) are produced; the quanta of which are photons. See the "Space-Grid" text at the link below for further details.

This means, however, that energy is being subtracted from the quantum vacuum whenever a photon is emitted. While it must be true (in this model) that the virtual photon's energy is returned again to the vacuum during absorption, the distance between emitting and absorbing bodies in the Cosmos is growing due to the expanding Universe. Waves are stretching out--an entropy effect.

So, in essence, more and more vacuum energy is being subtracted from the vacuum; energy that is suspended by the increased flight-times of the photons in the expanding Universe. These photon holes in the space foam can be understood to be equivalent to matter (dark matter), hence, as the Universe expands more and more of this dark matter arises (which may accumulate within a galaxy) to begin to cease the expansion. Thus, the dark matter may arise as a result of photon emission by a galaxy.

In this text, the author does not want to delve too deeply into the details of the photon emission model (see the "Photon Emission" text at the link below for a deeper description), except to say that this subtraction of quantum vacuum energy the author believes to be the Universe's primary process for the creation of photon holes (dark matter), new particles of quantum space. Hence, quantum space may be photon holes mixed with a froth of ordinary vacuum quanta--a quantum space foam! Hence, it's a frothy tiny wormhole-filled Cosmos.

It can also be understood as is discussed subsequently, that the creation of space requires no new energy. Space particles (photon holes) along with ordinary photons can spontaneously come into existence without any violation of the uncertainty principle. This is the author's view of the quantum vacuum. This is another method (besides photon emission) that allows the fabrication of new space in the Universe.

Quantum Space Is A Photon Hole Grid

It is well known that the Universe is bathed in a quantum background of ghostlike particles known as virtual photons. Recent research has indicated that this quantum vacuum is quite substantial.

The Casimir effect has proven that this background, which was once only hypothetical in the minds of physicists, absolutely does exist. The Casimir experiment may in-fact turn out to be as important in the long-run as the Michaelson-Morley experiment was in the 19th century! Perhaps yes!

The author's working hypothesis is that quantum space is essentially the subtraction of "photon holes" from the ghostlike background, or the spontaneous creation of photon holes. Space is, therefore, is a photon hole in the quantum vacuum background radiation. Space is, thusly, the opposite of quantum vacuum radiation. Matter is compressed space; space is diffuse matter. It's all really quite simple.

During photon emission, a single particle of background radiation may be subtracted from the vacuum leaving behind a single photon hole in the quantum vacuum. This can be understood to be the source of dark matter within a galaxy. The relationship of photons to space is that space is a grid of photon holes linked together that when brought into vibration bring about photons. It is the author's idea that there are primarily three processes for the creation of new space (and the holes in space that essentially compose matter).

1) Photon emission subtracts energy from the virtual photon background. Hence, the Universe creates new space by subtracting energy, particle by particle, from the quantum vacuum. So, this may be the dark matter meaning that space itself has weight.

2) Photon holes come into existence spontaneously when new photons do. More about process # 2 in a later section.

3) Space (although very elastic) may stretch beyond its limits and creates holes or voids in the wormhole space foam fabric. Galaxies (new matter) may have arose as a result when new space was not being fabricated (as in # 1 and # 2 above) as fast as the Universe was proceeding with expansion. Matter may, therefore, be understood to be a defect or hole in the space fabric.

Process # 1 is attractive, because a photon hole, if all the holes are of roughly equal energy and density, may provide the Universe with a repulsive push (a pressure) in all directions as long as the balance of new space being fabricated is essentially positive. This has the effect of a cosmological constant; space itself, therefore, is repulsive. This may be the so-called dark energy effect.

It's the author's view that dark matter is a localized effect of the compressed space near a galaxy. Thus, the compressed space near a galaxy has a significant weight. Dark energy is, on the other hand, a somewhat identical phenomena of space, except that the repulsive effect occurs in regions between the galaxies where gravity (and space compression) has become relatively weak. Space becomes quite uniform and, therefore, repulsive.

Hence, it is the strength of the localized gravity environment that governs the conversion of the density of space from attractive dark matter to the repulsive dark energy. Since gravity is the greatest in and around galaxies, they must, therefore, have the greatest accumulations of dark matter i.e., dense and compressed regions of photon holes having the properties of mass and weight. Thusly, gravity compresses space; space has weight.

If there is not enough gravity to slow the Universe once the creation of new space subsides (the galaxies dim), the stretching may crack-open the space-foam fabric and, thereby, create new matter (which may then slow down the Cosmos with its added gravity). This is the essence of # 3 above. This relationship of the creation of space process with the Cosmological Term is discussed in greater detail in the "Oscillating Universe" text at the link below.

Henceforth, space, as long as # 1 and #2 above are taking place, may have an in-built tendency to expand. If photon holes mixed with photons (vibrations of the space grid) can be accepted as the actual definition of quantum space, in fact, space may even be expected to expand.

In this view, a positive cosmological constant may be required. This is consistent with the observation that the Universe is increasing its expansion over time. The Cosmological Term might also be zero or even a negative value, leading to the overall contraction of the Universe. This is the idea behind the "Oscillating Universe". Again, see the link below for more information. Perhaps, this whole business of dark matter and dark energy might be avoided entirely. See the author's "Time-Entropy" text at the link below.

In the photon emission text, the only allowable vacuum energy to become an ordinary photon may be the Planck derivative of 4.14 x 10^-15 eV; a minute quantity of energy subtracted from the quantum vacuum itself. Hence, each of the particles of quantum space in process # 1 would have the negative value of - 4.14 x 10^-15 eV. This could in fact be the negative value of each particle of dark matter!

The physicist John Wheeler has suggested that Planck's constant is related to quantum foam, and that is what is proposed here (Wheeler, 1998). However, Wheeler has not suggested that the quantity of space foam can be variable and relates to photon emission. Moreover, Wheeler also does not view the Planck value as related to dark matter. Nor does Wheeler suggest that space foam can be related to miniature wormholes. In the author's opinion, Wheeler has been somewhat overrated as a physicist.

It is notable that these holes in the vacuum must, unlike ordinary photons, obey the Pauli exclusion principle. That is, two photon holes cannot occupy the quantum state. Two space quanta, therefore, cannot have the same position with the same velocity. Thusly, photon holes do not pass-through each other. If they did, space and matter would both collapse inward to a single point.

Space, hence, has a foam-like quality and it is mobile (and can never be absolute); it consists of minute photon holes connected together in a grid-like system. It is the vibrations of this grid which we call photon energy. Material objects exist as denser photon hole structures that may be embedded within the space grid. Matter tends to attract the photon holes in the grid and this is what we associate with the force of gravity.

The Quantum Vacuum

As described above in process # 2, the fabrication of new space can also take place via the spontaneous generation of photon holes in the quantum vacuum. Space, in this view, can spontaneously fabricate itself. How can this be so?

A key question might be: How to picture the quantum vacuum in this view of reality? The radiation in the quantum vacuum can be viewed as wavelike fluctuations of space quanta (the foam itself is set into vibration). For example, according to quantum mechanics, it is allowed for a photon to spontaneously appear, if it is re-absorbed quickly by the vacuum. This time limit is set by the uncertainty principle. This is difficult to visualize and understand.

However, if a photon is accompanied always by its partner, a photon hole (its opposite), then the re-absorption by the vacuum is simply the photon "filling" an opposite hole of the same energy. Hence, one can see that: a photon + a photon hole = 0. One can see, therefore, why a photon might come into existence (as total energy must always be zero) and also how an absorption might occur.

Photons at a wide spectrum of energies, therefore, are allowed to spontaneously arise, as long as a photon hole partner does also arise with it. The photon may then fall-into its partner or other identical negative energy hole i.e., a hole of identical, but opposite energy, giving the appearance that it was reabsorbed by the vacuum itself [which is not (in this picture at least) technically correct]. The photon simply fills the hole. So yes, these events do not change the quantity of energy in the Universe at all. Energy itself is always conserved. The sum total of all energy in the Universe is always equal to zero!

Thus, it can be understood that space foam (mixtures of photons and photon holes) can arise all by itself, without any energy conservation violation. Space can, in this way, spontaneously arise, the polarization of exactly opposite energy photons--the fluctuations of quantum space. One positive energy; the other negative.

The rather turbulent environment within the quantum vacuum in close proximity to galaxies, may give rise to the fabrication of new space foam by a galaxy. This will be another distinct method besides photon emission for a galaxy to produce new space and in turn generate an outward force on other galaxies.

It has usually been assumed that it is the uncertainty principle that allows any photon particle (or any other particle) to arise all by itself. However, the uncertainty principle has nothing whatever to do with this! A photon (at any energy) can arise for any amount of time, as long as an identical photon hole of negative energy arises with it! Usually, these fluctuations of space come about in close proximity to each other. Hence, when two photon particles of opposite energy (positive and negative) do happen to meet, they tend to cancel-out and the photon simply fills the photon hole. Space tends to contract slightly when this happens, because the space foam itself is canceling-out.

During photon emission, only energy h (- 4.14 x 10^-15 eV) vacuum photons (that spontaneously arose at some point) are permitted to gain energy from an excited charged particle and become ordinary photons. A photon hole partner is left behind as a result during each event, an addition to space, until the photon becomes absorbed at some future point. This negative Planck value can be understood to be the dark matter in the space within a galaxy. During absorption, the energy h from each photon is returned again to the vacuum and fills the energy - h "hole" elsewhere, subtracting a tiny bit of space from the foam (and from the dark matter). See the "Photon Emission" text for more about this at the link below.

Quantum Mechanical Boundaries And The Physical Size Of Space---Does The Newtonian Universe Still Live?

Why are there presently two sets of physical rules for the Universe to obey, one quantum mechanical and the other classical Newtonian? At present, one set of laws applies to the very small particle World and the other set is for the somewhat larger everyday objects. We treat these objects classically. Indeed, this present situation is simply unacceptable (in the author's opinion) and can never be correct! So, there must be a unifying principle to be found. What we have now is that somewhere along the size line (or scale) there is a change of language in the physical laws, the fuzzy boundary where the two sets of physical laws come into interface. What physics determines this boundary?

Henceforth, within this document (in mid March 2004), the author is now proposing his resolution to this longstanding dilemma (and inconsistency as the author sees it) in physics. Indeed, the thoughts concerning all of this have now gelled in the author's mind. Therefore, in these writings, the author will now be proposing an entirely Newtonian Universe! But, if this is so, the still question remains, how to make sense of this often contradictory statistical "weirdness" at the very tiny scales of the quantum World? Why can we only apply a statistical description to the events that so often occur in this strange World, a World so remote from our own?

The author will attempt to resolve this issue (at least in his own mind) by his previous suggestion that space will be found to be composed of a wormhole-like space foam. That is, only particles of a given size (the size at which the change in language occurs) can enter the wormholes and, thus, traverse into a yet higher dimensional hyperspace arising (perhaps) at some other location in the space foam. So, particle paths then disintegrate.

Subatomic particles actually may have no well defined pathways at all, but only a probabilistic description of their courses. But, why are there no particle paths?? Because, particles that are small enough simply fall into the tiny space wormholes after a very short distance and then travel into hyperspace. And so, these particle paths are not allowed to be viewed by us due to the very structure of space itself. But, paths there must be indeed, although they are seen to be unobservable by any known measurement.

It can be surmised, therefore, that that quantum mechanical laws exist at all yields us some important information about the nature of the space that we live in. So, quantum mechanics essentially elaborates upon the nature of space itself. Yes, if we understand it in these terms, we can deduce more about the structure of space as a result of the findings of quantum theory.

In summary, let it be stated that the Universe may be (to this author) essentially Newtonian. The reason we don't see it as Newtonian on such small scales is due to the very structure of space itself. That is, we may also need a General Relativitistic (GTR) description at such very tiny scales to explain better the strange behavior of quantum mechanics; this is a scale in which particles can be seen to appear out of nowhere and so on (perhaps also in some cases annihilating with their antimatter partners etc.). Hence, cause and effect actually may not exist at quantum scales merely due to the size of the space quanta. Wormhole space size, therefore, may determine the fuzzy boundary between the two sets of laws that we now employ.

But, if one removes the GTR description from the quantum World, then the Universe operates perhaps by strict Newtonian classical principles alone. General relativity, therefore, will also be found to be valid apparently in this case describing the extremely strange behavior of the quantum World. The author, thusly, sides here with Einstein believing that his GTR is indeed the correct viewpoint! However, the author traverses even a step further in applying Einstein's theory by extending it to describe the quantum World. So, GTR may be found to have applications extending beyond that of the very large, reaching even to the very very small!

Quantum Space And Gravity

As mentioned above, if the density and energy of the vacuum is all roughly equal (a roughly uniform pressure throughout space), the effect of one particle on another is repulsive. However, if the pressures of the vacuum are locally non-uniform, there is a gravitational effect (Guth, 1997).

This is the author's idea of gravity, where matter has a different localized pressure than that of the surrounding space. For a piece of matter, this effect is a localized attraction due to the negative radiation pressure effect.

Photon holes within the quantum foam that clump in certain areas may be the framework that defines the geometry of space. A bent geometry of space may in-essence be the clumping (or grouping) of particles of space i.e., photon holes. This may be an increase in the number and density of photon holes in one place compared to that of other regions within the foam.

If matter is understood to be composed of photon hole structures (as in the image above), the space foam may be attracted to the matter (negative energy attracts negative energy). As mentioned previously, the quantity of photon holes in the foam mix can be understood to be a curvature (or wormhole) within the space foam. This accumulation surrounding the photon hole matter structures may, therefore, be equivalent to a curvature of space. Gravity, thus, can be viewed as the clumping of photon holes in and around matter. So, space particles and matter particles may then occur together, since two radiation voids (negative energy) may attract each other. For more information about this and also the gravity idea, see the "General Theory Of Relativity" link below.

For the Universe as a whole, the production of new space via photon emission leads to a self-feeding system. For example, the Universe is increasing its expansion over time. The more photons that are emitted by glowing bodies in the Universe and the farther they travel in their journey before being absorbed, the more space can be added to the Cosmos. Since the distance between emitting and absorbing bodies is growing all the time, space is increasing at an accelerated rate (along with the Universe).

It is ironic that too much stretching will create cracks that will halt the Universe. In addition, photon absorption is actually the return of the virtual photonic energy to the vacuum and, hence, the subtracting of particles of space from the Universe. The Universe may stop expanding when absorbed particles outnumber emitted ones and/or cracks in the fabric form. See the "Oscillating Universe" text for more about this concept at the link below.

Space And Time

The relationship between space and time can be expressed as the following: The author's work on time (that time is one's metabolic rate) can be joined-up with space if motion through space affects one's metabolic rate. It can also be understood that metabolic rate is related to one's perception of distances through space. Thus, when one travels through space at high speed (for example, at very close to the speed of light) time slows because metabolic rate may increase. The playback of this metabolic increase in one's consciousness has the effect of one's time slowing down.

Hence, time and space must essentially be joined--space-time, because motion may have an effect upon internal metabolic functioning. To the author, this is time. When space is mentioned in this text, time must also be added. For more information about this conception of time, see the "Time" link below.

The Bohmian Universe And Quantum Space

It has been the author's opinion lately (in July, 2003) that a Bohmian description of the Universe might be possible by viewing quantum of space each as a kind of whole in itself. That is, each piece of quantum space may be abstracted to be a part of the larger whole of space. Perhaps, this may be the essence of the wormhole. The brilliant physicist David Bohm understood this as being a kind of hologram where the entire whole of the Universe can be viewed by each individual piece. While this sounds a bit strange even to the author, Bohm developed his version of quantum mechanics and this was his accompanying philosophical underpinnings for his model. In the author's opinion, Bohm had an extremely deep understanding.

In his model, Bohm was able to duplicate the predictions of present quantum mechanics, but in a much more classical sense. However, the philosophical consequences to his model were found to be somewhat startling. In particle physics terminology, a particle can no longer be separate from its field throughout space. Or, to put it somewhat differently, the waves throughout space cannot be separate from the actualized (or measured) individual particles. For Bohm, all of reality had these holographic qualities (Bohm, 1998).

In biology, asexual reproduction is the copying over and over of the same organism. The author is suggesting that quantum space is just like that. The Universe began with one photon and one photon hole space-- or one wave up and one wave down i.e., essentially a disturbance of the medium. All of what we call space today are descendants from (or copies of) this initial space quantum (or disturbance). Hence, all of space may be interconnected in an important way with every other piece. So, one can actually view the whole of space by studying just a single piece of it. So, all wormholes were at one time united!

Conclusion

This model leads to the following probable consequences:

1) Photon holes are a negative Planck energy unit possibly of - 4.14 x 10^-15 eV, along with the other spontaneously generated negative energy photon holes. The Planck energy, therefore, largely defines the majority of the particle energies of the quantum foam. These Planck energy holes may be the dark matter and it is the galaxies that are producing such particles. The space, therefore, has weight! This is elaborated in greater detail in the "Photon Emission" text at the link below.

2) Photons holes as space, unlike ordinary photons, cannot occupy the same quantum state. Hence, photon holes bump into each other without passing through each other. Matter and space as we know it could not otherwise exist.

3) Space on the large scale must be positively curved and, therefore, repulsive; it must have an in-built tendency to expand. This is the cosmological constant, the constant that Einstein so much regretted adding to his equations. This prediction agrees with the observation of a Universe that is increasing its expansion over time. While a photon hole locally should attract near matter, the uniformity of holes throughout the Cosmos and the dominance of photons away from gravitational fields should lead to a wider repulsive effect.

4) The particles that arise in the quantum vacuum are not limited by the time constraints imposed by the uncertainty principle. As long as spontaneous creation involves both a photon and a photon hole (the components of quantum foam), there can be no time limit. The sum of both of these objects always equals zero.

5) A Universe that expands faster than the amount of new space it produces, cracks-open creating new matter (which may add to cease the expansion). This may be how new galaxies come into being (or how present galaxies grow larger). Matter and galaxies are, thus, defects in the fabric of the elastic space foam. The Universe may, therefore, be self-correcting and closed despite the present observations to the contrary.

6) Dark matter is a localized effect caused by gravity compressing space. Farther from gravitational fields, negative pressure photon holes are more uniform and kick into overdrive accelerating the Cosmos--the dark energy effect. The author's other text that might avoid dark matter and dark energy can be seen in the text "Time-Entropy" at the link below.

7) Motion through space increases one's metabolic rate joining time and space together--space-time.

8) A holographic description of space is possible in this model. See description above.

9) The "why" of quantum mechanics is granted an explanation by wormhole space.

10) By viewing GTR as being linked (and extended) to the small scales, the Newtonian Universe still lives!!!